General Biology - NCLEX-PN

The prostate, a fleshy endocrine gland inferior to the outlet of the male bladder, secretes a slightly alkaline milky fluid that makes up one third of the volume of semen. This alkalinity helps neutralize the acid environment of the vagina, increasing the likelihood of conception. Lubrication of the urethra is provided by the bulbourethral gland, while fructose is produced within the seminal vesicles. The prostate does not take part in sperm production.

Calcitonin is produced by the thyroid gland. The hormone plays an important role in lowering blood calcium levels. It is also synthesized as a drug and used in the treatment of hypercalcemia. The other three hormones are indeed secreted by the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Insulin, secreted by the beta cells lowers blood sugar, glucagon, secreted by the alpha cells, increases blood sugar, and somatostatin, secreted by the gamma cells regulates digestive and metabolic processes. Lipase is not a hormone, but an enzyme that facilitates the breakdown of lipids. The pancreas does indeed secrete lipase.

Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood. The endocrine glands include the ovaries, testes, hypothalamus, thyroid, pituitary, adrenal glands, pancreas, the pineal gland, and others. Salivary glands are considered exocrine glands. Exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts to the body surface or into body cavities, such as the mouth in the case of salivary glands.

Oxytocin is produced by the hypothalamus, and is released by the posterior pituitary. Women experience an increased level of oxytocin during labor, after birth, and while breastfeeding. It helps to increase uterine contractility, aiding in the delivery process and preventing hemorrhage after birth. Progesterone and estrogen are hormones released from the ovary. Estrogen is has many effects on the body, one of which is the development of sex characteristics in females. Progesterone is important in regulation of the uterine lining. Prolactin is made by the anterior pituitary gland and functions in the production on breast milk.

Epinephrine is the only hormone of those listed that is produced by the adrenal medulla. The adrenal medulla is the center of the adrenal gland. Antidiuretic hormone is produced by the posterior pituitary. Calcitonin is produced by the thyroid. Thyroid-stimulating hormone is secreted from the anterior pituitary, as is follicle-stimulating hormone.

All of these are correct effects of parathyroid hormone. The kidneys resorb calcium and as a result, less is released into the urine. The intestines absorb additional calcium from food and calcium is released from the bone through the work of osteoclasts.

Catecholamines are hormones produced by the adrenal medulla. Adrenal glands are located above each kidney. Catecholamines may also function as neurotransmitters, important chemical messengers. They regulate the sympathetic nervous system's response to stress.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is produced by the anterior pituitary. TSH causes the thyroid to release thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). A TSH blood test is often ordered to diagnose hypoactive thyroid.

The thyroid gland is located (in front) anterior to the trachea. The parathyroid glands are located on the backside on the thyroid. The thyroid is stimulated in response to TSH produced by the anterior pituitary. It will then secrete T3 and T4 although T3 is more potent and produced in a lesser quantity. Calcitonin, a hormone which decreases blood calcium levels, is also produced by the thyroid.

Aldosterone is a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands. Serum aldosterone levels vary throughout the day. Aldosterone presence is highest in the morning. Of the answer choices, 7 AM is the best choice. A physician may have the patient come to the office at a specific time of day for this reason.

In standard units, the formula for body mass index is:

Normal BMI is considered to be 18.5 - 24.9. A BMI below that would indicate that the individual is underweight, while a higher value may indicate that the individual is overweight.

BMI values between 30 and 39.9 indicate obesity, while a BMI over 40 could indicate that the individual is severely obese.

Vitamin B5, or pantothenic acid, is the only water-soluble vitamin listed. Vitamins A, E, D, and K are all fat soluble and so should be consumed with fat to be absorbed.

While all of the substances listed are present in gastric secretions and are necessary for normal digestion, intrinsic factor is the only one that has a direct role in vitamin B12 absorption in the small intestine. Deficiencies in intrinsic factor due to genetic variation or damage to stomach lining can result in pernicious anemia, a type of anemia that is caused by insufficient levels of B12.

The digestion of dietary carbohydrates is initiated by amylase, an enzyme present in saliva. This enzyme breaks down long carbohydrate molecules into shorter units such as disaccharides. Lipase breaks down fats and is not present in the saliva, rather it is secreted by the pancreas into the duodenum. Pepsin is a protease - an enzyme that breaks down proteins. This enzyme is secreted by the chief cells of the stomach in its zymogen form (pepsinogen). It is activated by the product of the parietal cells (hydrochloric acid). Note that amylase is also secreted by the pancreas to complete the chemical digestion of carbohydrates into monosaccharides so that they can be absorbed by the brush border of the small intestine.

Bile is produced exclusively in the liver. It may then be stored in the gall bladder so that it can be released during digestion of a fatty meal. No bile is produced in the stomach, nor the duodenum. The vast majority of bile is cholesterol-derivatives that stick to dietary fiber and are excreted along with the fiber. Thus increasing fiber is (mainly soluble) is an effective way to decrease cholesterol.

Allicin is found primarily in garlic, and has a variety of properties that are beneficial to the health. It is antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, it can reduce atherosclerosis, decrease blood pressure, and act as a mild antioxidant.

Half an ounce of ground flax seeds provides over 130% of the dietary reference intake (DRI) of omega 3 fatty acids. An equivalent serving of shrimp is able to provide 15% of the DRI. Wheat germ oil and grapeseed oil are both good sources of omega 6 fatty acids but are not significant sources of omega 3 fatty acids.