Systems Biology and Tissue Types - MCAT Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems

Osteoytes, the long-lived star-shaped cells found in established bones, are primarily found within Haversian systems—the target-shaped tubes of bone matrix. They are encased in a bubble of interstitial fluid known as a lacuna.

The primary function of red bone marrow is to make red blood cells in the process known as erythropoiesis. If all bone marrow is destroyed, then an individual will lose the ability to make red blood cells.

Myogenesis is performed by muscle fibers and satellite cells. Osteogenesis is performed by osteoblasts. Neurogenesis primarily occurs during early development and is performed by neural stem cells.

Red bone marrow is filled with hematopoietic stem cells. Red bone marrow is found in the heads, or epiphyses, of long bones. Yellow marrow fills the medullary cavity and consists mostly of fats. The diaphysis contains the medullary cavity and therefore contains no red marrow. The periosteum has no marrow in it at all.

Since red bone marrow is a site of red blood cell and platelet production, hypoxia (low oxygen) would result in an increase in red marrow and therefore RBC concentration. Yellow bone marrow (typcially adipocyte-filled) can be converted into red bone marrow under conditions of low oxygen or blood loss.

Red bone marrow is primarily located in flat bones (such as the sternum and pelvis) and in the epiphyses of long bones. It is responsible for producing red blood cells, a process known as erythropoiesis. At birth, all bones of the human skeleton carry out erythropoesis, but many bones stop this function as the newborn ages.

It is important to note that yellow bone marrow is found in the medullary cavity within the diaphyses of long bones and assists in fat storage.

Bone is living tissue and it therefore requires a blood supply, which is brought to the bone itself by the vital soft tissue envelope around it. Articular cartilage routinely caps the epiphysis (end) of a long bone. The region adjacent to the epiphysis is termed the metaphysis, whereas the shaft of a long bone is the diaphysis.

This question requires a strong understanding of factors affecting bone resorption and bone re-formation.

Bone re-formation takes place when osteoblasts use calcium and phosphate from the blood to form bone. Calcitonin stimulates osteoblasts to form bone. Parathyroid hormone (PTH), on the other hand, stimulates bone resorption and causes osteoclasts to break down bone, causing blood calcium and phosphate levels to increase.

Of the possible answers, only increased osteoclast activity would result in higher blood calcium levels. Increased osteoblast activity, decreased parathyroid hormone, and increased calcitonin would all result in lower blood calcium levels.

Bones consist of two types of cells that regulate bone growth: osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts lay down collagen and other important organic substances that are required to synthesize bone tissue, whereas osteoclasts reabsorb existing bone tissue. The activity of both cells is important for repair, growth, and maintenance of bone tissue.

Note that a third type of cell, osteocytes, is also found in bone, but does not play as much of an active role in maintaining bone structure.

Parathyroid hormone causes calcium to be released from the bone into the blood stream, raising blood calcium levels. Osteoclasts reside in bone and are responsible for resorbing the hydroxyapatite matrix, releasing sequestered calcium into the blood.

Osteoblasts counter osteoclasts, building the hydroxyapatite matrix and sequestering calcium stores. Osteocytes are mostly involved in signaling. The parathyroid gland releases parathyroid hormone, but is not affected by the hormone itself. T-cell mature in the thyroid, and are not affected by parathyroid activity.

The hypothalamus is divided up into two parts: the magnocellular neurons and the parvocellular neurons. The magnocellular neurons synthesize antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin, which are then transported to the posterior pituitary for secretion. The parvocellular neurons secrete hormones such as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which are released into portal circulation to be transported to the anterior pituitary.

Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans are responsible for producing and secreting insulin in response to high blood glucose levels. In type I diabetes these cells are destroyed by an autoimmune process, while in type II diabetes they are replaced with scar tissue.

Alpha and delta cells in the islets of Langerhans produce glucagon and somatostatin, respectively. Neurons release acetylcholine to modulate glucose control through indirect processes.

Alpha cells in the islets of Langerhans are responsible for producing and secreting glucagon in response to high blood glucose levels. Insulin antagonizes the alpha cells to prevent glucagon release. In diabetes, when the beta cells of the pancreas are not functional, extremely high levels of glucagon exist in the blood due to loss of the negative feedback loop.

Beta and delta cells in the islets of Langerhans produce insulin and somatostatin, respectively. Neurons release acetylcholine to modulate glucose control through indirect processes.

The first key to understanding this question is remembering that beta cells in the pancreas are responsible for secreting insulin. If the beta cells are destroyed, then insulin levels are low. Insulin and glucagon act in opposite ways to keep the concentration of blood glucose in the normal range, providing a negative feedback loop. Insulin inhibits glucagon, and glucagon inhibits insulin. If insulin is low, then glucagon will not be inhibited and will be produced at higher levels than normal.

The test, as described in the passage, simply assays for the presence of hCG in the urine. The person using the test would either obtain a positive or negative result. Whether or not this result is valid remains in question because there are no experimental controls involved. In other words, there is nothing to test whether the test reagents are faulty or the procedure was done incorrectly. A positive control would involve using a sample liquid containing hCG and testing to see whether the pregnancy test could actually detect it. If it can't, then something is wrong. A negative control might involve using a urine sample with no hCG in it and seeing if the test gives a false positive result. Such controls are not included in the test as described in the passage. The other answer choices can be eliminated. The answer: 'is only effective after at least one month of pregnancy' is wrong because the passage states that hCG levels are high enough to be detected by the time of the first missed period (anywhere from 7-14 days from the time of fertilization.)

The answer: 'is inaccurate because hCG can be produced normally in the non-pregnant mother,' can be eliminated because the mother does not produce hCG. If she did, the test would be entirely useless. Only the embryo produces the hormone. The answer choice, 'is inaccurate because hCG is sometimes not produced by the fertilized zygote,' is also incorrect because the embryo must produce hCG in order to prevent menstruation and maintain the corpus luteum. If it doesn't, menstruation will occur and the embryo will be sloughed off with the uterine lining.

Calcitonin lowers plasma calcium, while parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases it. Insulin and glucagon are responsible for blood glucose, not calcium.

Microvilli surround villa which line the small intestine. These structures greatly increase the surface area (and therefore nutrient absorption capability) of the small intestine.

Homeostasis, or "steady-state" physiology, is the system of feedback loops that enables an organism to create a stable, adaptive environment. For example, the pancreas and the brain together work to regulate the blood sugar levels via the hormones insulin and glucagon.

Compact and spongy bone have similar chemical and structural compositions and are both hard and resistant to compression; however, due to the fact that compact bone is denser, nutrients are delievered through canals called Haversian systems in compact bone; spongy bone is less dense and lacks these specialized canals.

Blood pressure tends to be the greatest near the heart, and decreases as blood flows to the capillaries. The pressure is greatest at the aorta and gradually decreases as blood moves from the aorta to large arteries, smaller arteries, and capillaries. The pressure is lowest in the venous system, which is why blood can pool in the veins and act as a "blood reservoir". Veins contain valves that allow them to pump blood back to the heart.