Hormones and Neurotransmitters - Biochemistry

Insulin is secreted in response to high blood glucose levels, which increases cell uptake of glucose. Glycogen has the opposite effect - it stimulates glycogenolysis and lipolysis to release glucose into the bloodstream during times of fasting/starvation.

Epinephrine and glucagon are examples of hormones that affect G protein-coupled receptors like adenylate cyclase and increase levels of cAMP. The other hormones listed affect receptor tyrosine kinases and non-receptor tyrosine kinases.

Elevated arginine leads to an increase in secretion of insulin, not decreased. GIP, CCK and closing of the voltage gated potassium channels lead to an increase in secretion of insulin.

Ketone bodies, which include acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone, are produced by the liver in the fasting state by beta-oxidation of fatty acids. They are then released into the blood stream, where they can be used as alternative energy sources for other organs, such as muscle, kidney, and brain. Apoprotein B is one of the proteins that hold lipoproteins together. Beta-carotene is a vitamin with antioxidant properties.

Epinephrine first binds to an adrenergic receptor. The activated receptor works via a G protein, and so GDP is exchanged for GTP and the protein is activated. This then causes activation of adenylate cyclase and subsequent conversion of ATP to cAMP. cAMP acts upon protein kinase A and several other effector molecules. Diacylglycerol and IP3 are second messengers that are uninvolved in this process.

Erythropoietin is a glycoprotein hormone produced in the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow.

Glucagon is a short peptide hormone involved in triggering signal cascades in response to low blood glucose. Biotin, also known as vitamin B7, is a cofactor in fatty acid synthesis. Pyridoxal phosphate, the activated form of vitamin B6, is a cofactor in transamination reactions, among others. Epinephrine is a steroid hormone involved in the fight or flight response.

This question is asking us to identify a hormone that passes through the target cell's plasma membrane in order to affect that cell.

When looking at hormones, there are three general types: amine, peptide, and steroid. Out of these, steroid hormones are all capable of crossing the plasma membrane. In fact, the receptors for steroid hormones are often found in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cell. Generally, amine and peptide hormones act by binding to a receptor on the outer surface of the target cell's plasma membrane. However, thyroxine is an exception. Thyroxine is an amine hormone based off of the amino acid tyrosine. Normally, amine-derived hormones do not cross the plasma membrane, but the largely hydrophobic nature of thyroxine allows it to cross the plasma membrane and bind with its intracellular receptor.

Of the other answer choices shown, none of them cross the cell membrane. Epinephrine is an amine-derived hormone, utilizing tyrptophan as the starting material. Insulin, glucagon, and growth hormones are all peptide hormones.

Insulin promotes the translocation of GLUT-4 receptors to the cell surface through cell signaling triggered by its binding to cell surface insulin receptors. GLUT-2 transporters are insulin-independent and are found in tissues like the pancreas and liver where immediate glucose sensing is important for whole body function (The pancreas needs to sense glucose so it can secrete insulin for the rest of the body. Imagine if the pancreas itself needed insulin.)

Glucagon and epinephrine are typically thought of as having catabolic effects; however, their purpose is to increase the availability of fuel substrates to extra-hepatic tissues during the fasting state or during fight or flight situations, respectively. So, while many of their effects like glycogenolysis and lipolysis conform to this pattern, they also induce the anabolic process of gluconeogenesis in the liver to increase the availability of glucose to other tissues.

Peptide hormones are polar molecules that cannot traverse the plasma membrane. Recall that plasma membranes have a hydrophobic interior. Since peptide hormones are polar, they cannot travel through this hydrophobic interior of the plasma membrane; therefore, peptide hormones signal cells by binding to receptors on the plasma membrane. There are several types of hormone receptors on the membrane, including G protein coupled receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases. Upon binding, the receptors activate themselves and other intracellular molecules called second messengers. This leads to a signaling cascade that ultimately results in upregulation or downregulation of processes inside the cell. Second messenger molecules facilitate the amplification and propagation of signal throughout the cell. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, or cAMP, is one of the most common second messenger molecules; therefore, all three molecules listed in this question are involved in peptide hormone pathway.

Steroid hormones are nonpolar molecules that can travel across the hydrophobic (or nonpolar) interior of the plasma membrane whereas peptide hormones are polar molecules that cannot travel across the hydrophobic interior. The question states that the hormone cannot enter the cell. This means that it cannot traverse the plasma membrane and, therefore, must be a peptide hormone. A peptide is made up of several amino acids. There are polar and nonpolar amino acids. Since they are polar, peptide hormones must have at least a few polar amino acids. These polar amino acids can be positively charged, negatively charged, or uncharged. There are twelve polar amino acids, five of which are charged (aspartic acid, glutamic acid, histidine, lysine, and arginine). Aspartic acid and glutamic acid are negatively charged at physiologic pH, whereas the other three are positively charged. A molecule that forms clumps in water is hydrophobic and nonpolar. Since we are dealing with a peptide hormone, the hormone will dissolve and not form clumps in water. A steroid hormone, on the other hand, is nonpolar and will form clumps in water.

A hormone is a signaling molecule that binds to a receptor and initiates a signaling cascade inside the cell. The receptor for a hormone can be found on the periphery of the cell (on plasma membrane) or inside the cell (cytoplasm or nucleoplasm). A steroid hormone is nonpolar and can traverse the hydrophobic interior of the plasma membrane whereas a peptide hormone is polar and cannot traverse the hydrophobic interior; therefore, a steroid hormone will have its receptor inside the cell whereas a peptide hormone will have its receptor on the plasma membrane. The question is asking us to find the polar, peptide hormone (because its receptor will be found on the plasma membrane, not in cytoplasm). To answer this question, we need to know which amino acids are polar. Recall that there are twelve polar amino acids. They are serine, threonine, cysteine, tyrosine, asparagine, glutamine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, histidine, lysine, and arginine; therefore, the hormone containing phenylalanine, histidine, and methionine is most likely to be polar. The rest of the hormones have nonpolar amino acids only.

Phospholipase C normally breaks down phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP3) into diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3). This cascade eventually increases cytosolic calcium levels through its release from the endoplasmic reticulum and from the extracellular fluid. Malfunction in this enzyme results in PIP3 not being broken down.

ACTH is regulated by a negative feedback loop, in which ACTH secretion stimulates production of cortisol, but this feeds back on to the hypothalamus to inhibit the production of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH is a positive regulator of ACTH production, so a decrease in CRH ultimately results in a decrease in ACTH.

Insulin is a peptide hormone that is released in the fed state. Thus, it promotes glucose storage and DNA replication, but decreases glycogen breakdown and the release of glucose.

Glucagon is a peptide hormone that is released in the fasted state. It stimulates macromolecule breakdown and the production and subsequent release of glucose into the blood stream. It is synthesized and released from the alpha-cells in the pancreatic islets.

Insulin release is induced by incretins in the blood (ex. GLP-1), and a high carbohydrate meal. Incretins are metabolic hormones that stimulate a decrease in blood glucose. Growth hormone does not cause an increase in blood insulin.

Beta-cells are found in the majority of the inner area of pancreatic islets. They are the most common cell in the pancreatic islet. Beta-cells produce both insulin and C-peptide, and are primarily active in the fed state. The gamma cells of the pancreatic islets secrete somatostatin.