Trade, Commerce, and Market Competition - AP World History: Modern

Cyprus was conquered by Richard the Lionheart in 1191 and formally introduced into the Crusader Kingdoms as the Kingdom of Cyprus. It was one of the final crusader kingdoms to fall, thanks to its defensibility and isolation from the mainland. It would stay in Catholic hands until 1489 when it was conquered by the Republic of Venice, and later by the Ottoman Empire.

Archaeologists have uncovered ancient breweries at Sumerian archaeological sites, and historians have translated numerous Sumerian documents relating to brewing beer.

Computers and batteries were created thousands of years after the Sumerian language went extinct and its people were absorbed into other groups.

Although some of the oldest written fiction we have is Sumerian, storytelling existed in prehistory; prior to the advent of writing in ancient Sumer.

Paintings tens of thousands of years old can be found throughout the world; painting is originally a prehistoric art.

The Crusades allowed for Europeans to come into greater contact with Muslim societies, many of which had preserved classical Greek and Roman texts that had been lost in Europe. Furthermore, the increased movement of people resulted in the establishment of additional trade networks between the Middle East and Europe. While the Crusades also gave Europeans temporary holds on Middle Eastern territory, the conquered lands were located within the Levant.

The Ottoman Empire straddled the border between Africa, Asia, and Europe, dominating trade between these regions. The Malian Empire, while extraordinarily wealthy, was in West Africa and ill suited to dominate trade between Europe and Asia. Likewise, the Ming dynasty was powerful and wealthy, but on the east coast of Asia, separated from Africa and Europe by the entirety of the Asian landmass. The Frankish kingdom dominated mainland Europe, but had little influence in Asia or Africa. Finally, the Spanish Empire was largely created out of an attempt to circumnavigate the Ottoman position.

While different provinces and people within the Roman empire had their own traditions of craftsmanship, Rome's silver and glass workshops were considered the best in the world for millennium.

Egypt and other regions of the empire excelled in the crafting of papyrus and paper, not Rome.

Jade, ivory, and silks were all available in ancient Rome, but from distant provinces' trade with other empires; none of these goods came from Rome.

For many hundreds of years the majority of trading between Europe, the Middle East, North Africa, and Asia was facilitated by Muslim traders who operated trading caravans. These caravans would move over vast distances carrying goods from one region to another. Caravansaries were important establishments that sprung up to cater to the needs of these traveling caravans. Their presence was generally indicative of a wealthy city -trade begets wealth.

Ghana and other West African states became immensely wealthy in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries due to control of the lucrative African gold trade. Gold arrived in Ghana from southern Africa and was exchanged with Arab traders for luxury goods like salt.

Dhows were sailing vessels which were commonly used by Indian and Arab traders in the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea.

From 1405 to 1433, the explorer Zheng He conducted seven voyages on behalf of the Ming dynasty for the purposes of diplomacy and trade. After his death in 1433, the Ming dynasty vastly reduced its naval expenditures due to increasing military threats.

During the Columbian exchange, domesticated animals such as cows, horses, sheep, and goats, along with products such as wheat, sugar, and coffee were brought from the Eastern Hemisphere to the Western Hemisphere. Similarly, products such as Cacao, Potatoes, Corn, and Tomatoes were brought to the Eastern Hemisphere from the Western Hemisphere.

The tropical climate of Indonesia was such that large numbers of spices could be grown and harvested on plantations. Although originally started by the Portuguese, by the 17th century the Dutch dominated the spice trade. None of the other goods listed were found in great quantity or even at all throughout the islands.

The triangular slave trade consisted of enslaving people from West Africa for sugar in the Caribbean, then trading sugar for rum and manufactured goods in New England and Europe, before returning to Africa to trade that for more slaves.

The Triangular slave trade was an Atlantic Ocean phenomenon whereas Chile is on the Pacific coast of the Americas.

Salt was not a central good of the Triangular slave trade.

The Triangular slave trade existed for hundreds of years but was largely finished by the industrial revolution.

The Caribbean was not a major source of gold, especially compared to West Africa.

The Spanish conquest of Manila (in the Philippines) in 1571 was instrumental in facilitating the trade of silver between Spanish America and China. Silver, during this time period, was extremely valuable and in extremely high demand in Chinese society and most of the world’s supply of silver was coming from immensely profitable silver mines in Spanish owned South America.

Portugal was the first Western European nation to embark on a determined campaign of oceanic voyaging and discovery. In 1415, Prince Henry, known as the “the Navigator,” led the first of these voyages, sailing to Africa and capturing the city of Ceuta. Emboldened by his success, Prince Henry and other Portuguese explorers embarked on a studied campaign of oceanic voyages, progressively making their way down the African coastline and across the Indian Ocean to Asia. Much of the initial motivation for such voyages, which were quite expensive, not to mention deeply dangerous, came from the Portuguese government’s desire to find a way to overcome the Venetian monopoly of the lucrative spice trade. In Europe, spices such as pepper, cloves, ginger, and cinnamon were widely coveted, but these savory treasures could only be obtained from Asia, through the endeavors of Muslim and Ottoman merchants. These merchants, in turn, sold their wares to Venetian traders, whose ideal geographic location ensured that the Italian city-state had a near-perfect monopoly upon the spice trade. The enterprising minds in Portugal’s government and business class were not content with simply tolerating this Venetian stranglehold, but they also knew that the overland trade routes to China and India (such as the famed Silk Road) had by this time become far too treacherous to ensure any safe and profitable deliveries. So, under the inspired leadership of Prince Henry, Portugal turned to oceanic voyaging instead, hoping to sail directly to African, Muslim, and Asian markets to obtain the prized spices themselves.

The Spanish were inspired by Portugal’s ambitious program of oceanic discovery but were determined to improve upon their nearby rival’s successes by seeking their own unique oceanic route to the rich Asian spice markets. Instead of traversing the Indian Ocean, the Spanish believed that by sailing across the Atlantic Ocean, they would be able to reach India at a much swifter pace, where ample spices, gold, silver, silks, and other highly prized luxury items would be theirs for the purchasing. These desires led the Spanish crown, especially under the ample patronage of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, to commission the voyages of Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, and Francisco Magellan, whose journeys would begin the European discovery and conquering of the so-called New World. In time, many European nations, including the British and French, would seize large portions of the Western Hemisphere by force, exploiting the land’s natural resources and native populations in equally ruthless terms. The Spanish Empire would become the most notorious, as its ever-increasing lust for gold led to the vicious conquering, enslavement, and wholesale slaughter of millions of Native Americans. The European markets remained willfully blind to these sufferings, as they wallowed in the new sources of gold, silver, spices, and various food items steadily extracted from the New World.

During the seventeenth century, the United Provinces of the Netherlands experienced an expansive economic boom that elevated its economy alongside that of Europe’s most powerful and prosperous nations. There were several reasons for this economic growth. First of all, the Netherlands had more cities, with a greater urban population, than any other European country at the time. These cities were made possible by an innovative new agricultural technique that the Dutch developed: they drained coastal land of all sea water. The fresh earth that was revealed by this technique was especially rich, moisturized, and fertile, which made it perfect for growing all sorts of crops (including the world-famous tulip bulbs). The Dutch also had a long history of trade with other regions, which was made possible by their skillful knowledge of ship building and sailing. In the seventeenth century, the Dutch put this knowledge to good use and began to establish their very own colonial empires overseas. They sought out East Asia, specifically the islands of Java, the Moluccas, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia, renowned for their costly spices. In order to produce, control, and transport these spices, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies Company in 1602. In time, this company would grow so powerful that, through its extensive networks of farming and trade, the Netherlands would have a virtual monopoly on the East Asian spice trade which would last until the end of World War Two. Also vital to Dutch prosperity was the establishment of the Amsterdam stock exchange, which would remain Europe’s primary method of financial transactions even as the Netherlands lost all their other elements of prosperity during the mid-to-late eighteenth century.

The Spanish Empire grew immensely wealthy from their control over Latin America - although it is worth noting that much of this wealth eventually found its way to bankers in England and the Netherlands, leaving Spain desperately poor by comparison. Much of this wealth was drawn from extremely profitable (and extremely brutal) silver mines in modern-day Peru and Bolivia.

The first contact between European civilization and Japan occurred in 1543. Soon after Portuguese traders and merchants in East Asia arrived in Japan and began trading with the local population. The Portuguese monopolized trade with East Asia in the early years of European exploration and colonialism, but were soon joined by the Dutch, the Spanish, the English, and the French. Trading between Japan and Portugal continued for another half-century, until the Tokugawa Period of isolationism began in Japan.

Joint-stock companies first emerged in Europe during the medieval period and became more common during the sixteenth century and the first wave of European exploration and colonialism. Joint-stock companies were created so that investors could pool their resources and negate personal risk. The Muscovy Company in London and the English East India Company are two early examples of joint-stock companies that were created to facilitate and monopolize trade.