Cultural History - AP World History: Modern

St. Petersburg was constructed in 1703, during the reign of Russian Tsar Peter the Great. Much of Peter’s time in power was concerned with improving the Russian navy and establishing Russian ports in the Baltic, the Black Sea, and the Caspian Sea. In the last two attempts he was unsuccessful, but in the construction of St. Petersburg he broke Sweden’s control over access to the Baltic Sea. St. Petersburg, which would serve as the capital of the Russian Empire, from the early eighteenth century until the Russian Revolution in 1917, became known as Russia’s “window to the West.”

The enlightenment idea that political legitimacy rests in the “consent of the governed” is most closely associated with the writings of John Locke. Locke is often referred to as the father of modern liberalism. His writings on republicanism, religious tolerance, and the social contract have been widely influential in European and American history. The consent of the governed essentially states that the government only has legitimacy to rule over the people so long as the people accept the government. If the government is deemed deficient, the people have a right and duty to overthrow the government.

The character and tone of the American Revolution (much like the French Revolution a decade later) was greatly shaped by enlightenment philosophy. The political theories of enlightenment thinkers like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, and Baron de Montesquieu are variously enshrined in the United States’ Constitution.

The Social Contract was written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in 1762. In it Rousseau argues against the authority of absolute monarchs in Europe. Rousseau states that only the people have absolute authority over the nature and form of government and that monarchs are beholden to the people, not the other way around. Rousseau’s ideas were influential in the formation of liberal and democratic constitutions throughout the world, including the framing of the constitution of the United States. Rousseau's ideas were also extremely influential in the outbreak of the French Revolution.

The Communist Manifesto was written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and published in 1848. In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels outline the history of human society through the lens of class struggle. They then provide advice on how workers can overthrow the established hierarchy and form a classless society by seizing the means of production from the capitalists in a bloody revolution.

King Henry VIII is the only one of these who is not an example of an enlightened despot. He reigned in the early sixteenth century, too early for the enlightenment. An enlightened despot is a ruler who tries to embrace some aspects of the enlightenment, but continues to preserve the authoritarian nature of their autocratic rule. Catherine the Great of Russia, Maria Theresa of Austria, and Frederick the Great of Prussia are the most famous enlightened despots.

In order to answer this question you first need to understand that a Deist is someone who ascribes to Deism - someone who believes in a “watchmaker God” who created the universe, but then left it to its own devices. Deism was widely embraced by scientists and thinkers during the enlightenment and the scientific revolution. Therefore, Rene Descartes (the famous enlightenment thinker) is the most likely of these answer choices to have been a Deist.

Voltaire is the enlightenment thinker who is most readily associated with religious tolerance. Voltaire wrote letters to monarchs all over Europe decrying the insidious impact of Christianity on European society. He believed strongly in Deism and argued that all men were equal in the eyes of God and that all faiths deserved equal respect and merit in a free and open society. Voltaire was widely persecuted in his lifetime for his polemical attacks on the Catholic Church.

Theodor Herzl is often remembered as one of the leading figures in the Zionist movement. Herzl founded the World Zionist Organization and was instrumental in organizing and encouraging Jewish settlement in Palestine. The Zionist movement, it is worth noting, was the movement to create an independent Jewish state (Israel) in British territory in Palestine.

Catherine the Great and Frederick the Great are both examples of enlightened despots. Enlightened absolutism emerged during the enlightenment period as many European monarchs sought to marry the principles of the enlightenment with the realities of their autocratic regimes.

Charles Fourier and Robert Owen are remembered as early advocates for utopian socialism. Both Fourier and Owen predate Marx, and their version of socialism may be understood as distinct from Marxism. Owen and Fourier advocated for utopian socialism on a very small-scale and communities modeled on their writings arose in France, Britain, and the United States of America in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

The concept of nationalism emerged as a prominent force in European affairs in the early nineteenth century. People in Europe had long held common and shared national identities, but the rising tide of nationalism in the nineteenth century was of a different order. It threatened the unity of multinational empires such as the Ottoman Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, as people campaigned for the right to self-determination throughout Europe.

The unifications of Germany and Italy (both completed in 1871) were inspired by the emergence of nationalism in the nineteenth century. Both countries had long been divided into small states and principalities, yet the people living there retained a shared language and a common heritage. It is generally accepted that the most important characteristic for the formation of a national identity is shared language and a common history.

Though the translation of the term has long been disputed, Ubermensch relates to Nietzsche's concept of the death of God. It refers to one who spurns promises of other-worldliness commonly presented through religions and accepts "this worldliness."

The USSR had a Communist orientation; it was officially socialist and run by a Communist party that hoped to eventually export proletarian revolution to the entire world.

Italy under Mussolini, Germany under Hitler, and Japan under Tojo were fascist powers; they believed in an ethnocentric society run by military industrialists.

The United States and Great Britain are liberal powers; their legal systems are based on the primacy of property rights for private individuals.

Islamism is the belief that Muslim clerical authorities should have ultimate power over society.

Warlordism oftentimes exists in a failed state; for example, in China in the first half of the 20th century.

Britain began experiencing the Industrial Revolution decades earlier than the rest of the world. This is due to the many advantages that Britain had over the rest of the world in terms of supplies of resources and technology. While Britain begins the Industrial Revolution in the mid-1700's, the rest of the world won't catch up until nearly 100 years later.

At this time in history people were not treated equally before the law, in the workplace, or in society as a whole. People were treated differently based on their economic status, gender, race, and ethnicity. Socialism called for the immediate end to this practice and the start of policy that made everyone equal.

Marx and Engels were German social philosophers who advocated an economic and social theory known as Marxism. Political systems based on Marxism have been called communist due to their emphasis on community improvement and common good. It bears noting, however, that notable communist governments, like the Soviet government, bear little resemblance to the theories and systems advocated by Marx and Engels.

The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital are the most famous works of Marx and Engels by far. They did, however, write many more books over the years including Value, Price, and Profit, which was critical of the use of mass labor by the wealthy for their gain. Reform or Revolution was written by Rosa Luxembourg, a follower of Marx and Engels.