Social Psychology - AP Psychology

Dispositional attribution is when we attribute a person's actions to their internal dispositions, such as personality, talents, emotional state, etc. We see the behavior as being caused by something internal to that person as opposed to attributing it to their environment.

According to Carl Rogers, incongruity occurs when one's self-image and ideal self do not match up. In other words, the traits that we consider ourselves to possess may not match up with who we truly want to be. These could be traits within our control, such as intelligence, physical fitness, etc., or not, such as a health condition or our physical appearance. In order to deal with the negative feelings they experience due to incongruence, people will either use defense mechanisms (i.e. denial or repression) or tackle it in a proactive manner.

Although the concept of "self-fulfilling prophecy" has existed for centuries and was a popular one in Ancient Greece, it was officially coined by the famous sociologist Robert K. Merton in the 20th century.

We develop a concept of ourselves through a process of considering how others perceive us and responding to how we view ourselves. This concept can change over time, but is titled a self-concept. Although there is a social component involved in that we rely on others, in part, to show us who we are, it is not termed a social-concept. Further, it is not necessarily ideal or real. As such, self-concept is the correct response.

The concept of the ideal self is as straightforward as it seems: the version of yourself that you would most like to be is your ideal self. The concept of self-image captures how you view and conceive of yourself. Your social and private selves, respectively, describe how you act in front of others versus how you tend to behave when unobserved.

Social loafing is a social phenomenon whereby an individual makes less effort towards a goal when they are working towards it with others. The most relatable example is when students are put together for projects at school. In these circumstances, there is considerably less effort put into the project than if everyone was working separately.

According to Mary K. Rothbart's three dimensions of temperament, children with lower levels of surgency/extraversion may develop internalizing problems. Internalizing problems are characterized by self-infliction and introversion, such as low self-esteem, social anxiety, and shyness. These problems can also give way to depression or other mood disorders. People with high surgency/extraversion will more likely be sensation-seeking, active, and happy.

According to Rothbart, the negative emotion that is associated with internalizing is fear. Fear will predict low levels of aggression but problems associated with self-esteem and shyness. The negative emotion that is associated with externalizing is anger. Anger is directed outwards as opposed to oneself.

Effortful control is the third dimension of Mary K. Rothbart's model of temperament. According to Rothbart, effortful control is the highest indicator of what will predict long-term happiness. It includes a low threshold for pleasure and ability to be in control of one's desires. People who have a high effortful control will often make committed decisions and work hard.

Alfred Adler was the one to coin the term inferiority complex. The beginnings of an inferiority complex begin very young, when a child naturally feels inferior to the competent adults that surround it. Those who have successfully met challenges before them will grow up with high self-esteem and self-worth. Those who have routinely failed or not gotten the recognition for the achievements they did make will often grow up with low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. This means they are prone to devalue themselves and may seek to overcompensate through asocial behavior or trying to obtain the recognition they did not receive as a child.

A stereotype is a widely held belief about a group of people, place, or thing that is a simplified generalization. In this instance, the group of people is "blondes" and the generalization is that they "have more fun." The belief could be based on the images in the media or real life experiences, but the quality that results in stereotype is the generalization to the demographic as a whole. Of course, stereotypes are not always true and can be very misleading. This applies to how we think about many other groups in society and can contribute to prejudice and animosity towards them.

Our most base needs are for physiological well-being (food, nourishment) and safety (shelter). Beyond that, we have a need for love and esteem which we mostly satisfy from either work or our personal relationships with partners, friends, and family. The highest need we have has more to do with our purpose in life or our "highest selves"--our most moral, creative, responsible, and authentic selves. This is the need to self-actualize and it is the most difficult of all needs to attain.

Those with authoritarian personalities have a strong tendency towards sticking to tradition and cultural norms. They believe in their own authority over others and display an oppressive attitude toward their subordinates. Moreover, they are defined by a lack of oppenness and fluidity in the face of newer ideas and innovations in society, choosing to instead stick with their own practices and beliefs.

A person who has an "internal locus of control" believes, in a sense, that they are the masters of their own destiny. They are less likely to be passive as a result. People with an internal locus of control, for example, are perhaps more likely to work hard since they believe their own actions will determine consequences.

The difference between prejudice an discrimination is that discrimination MUST involve an action, whereas prejudice can simply be an attitude. For example, a cat may be prejudiced against a dog on his street. The dog, however, is discriminating against the cat by eating the cat's food and chasing the cat every time he sees her.

A person's sexual orientation describes the kind(s) of person they find themselves romantically/sexually attracted to. People who identify as heterosexual are attracted to members of the opposite gender, while homosexuals are attracted to people of the same gender. People who identify as bisexual are attracted to both males and females, and those who identify as asexual are not attracted to anyone in that way.

A person with an external locus of control will feel that what happens to them in life is due to external causes. They might find themselves blaming many external factors for what happens to them or where they are in life: politics, economy, their family, friends, partners, etc. As a result, they may be much more passive in life and not take responsibility for the consequences of their own actions. However, they are less likely to be judgmental of other people's lives and suffer from the "just-world bias", the belief that people get what they deserve in life.

The false consensus effect describes how most people believe that other individuals have a similar mindset as themselves. This is a popular term in social psychology, along with concepts such as groupthink and group polarization.

Determinism, with regards to psychology, is the belief that your personal past will ultimately define who you turn out to be and the kinds of choices you will make. Determinism is a popular foundation for many psychological theories, mainly those in the behaviorist or psychoanalytic camp. There are such things as biological determinism, where genetics determine who you are, but that has little to do with determinism in psychology, which is more concerned with a person's life experiences.