Social Psychology - AP Psychology

Although the concept of "self-fulfilling prophecy" has existed for centuries and was a popular one in Ancient Greece, it was officially coined by the famous sociologist Robert K. Merton in the 20th century.

Social loafing is a social phenomenon whereby an individual makes less effort towards a goal when they are working towards it with others. The most relatable example is when students are put together for projects at school. In these circumstances, there is considerably less effort put into the project than if everyone was working separately.

A stereotype is a widely held belief about a group of people, place, or thing that is a simplified generalization. In this instance, the group of people is "blondes" and the generalization is that they "have more fun." The belief could be based on the images in the media or real life experiences, but the quality that results in stereotype is the generalization to the demographic as a whole. Of course, stereotypes are not always true and can be very misleading. This applies to how we think about many other groups in society and can contribute to prejudice and animosity towards them.

Those with authoritarian personalities have a strong tendency towards sticking to tradition and cultural norms. They believe in their own authority over others and display an oppressive attitude toward their subordinates. Moreover, they are defined by a lack of oppenness and fluidity in the face of newer ideas and innovations in society, choosing to instead stick with their own practices and beliefs.

The difference between prejudice an discrimination is that discrimination MUST involve an action, whereas prejudice can simply be an attitude. For example, a cat may be prejudiced against a dog on his street. The dog, however, is discriminating against the cat by eating the cat's food and chasing the cat every time he sees her.

A person's sexual orientation describes the kind(s) of person they find themselves romantically/sexually attracted to. People who identify as heterosexual are attracted to members of the opposite gender, while homosexuals are attracted to people of the same gender. People who identify as bisexual are attracted to both males and females, and those who identify as asexual are not attracted to anyone in that way.

The false consensus effect describes how most people believe that other individuals have a similar mindset as themselves. This is a popular term in social psychology, along with concepts such as groupthink and group polarization.

The cocktail party effect is being able to listen to one voice amidst other voices and distractions. This term comes from the fact that cocktail parties often involve large conversations, during which you may wish to focus on one particular person's commentary.

Paul Ekman's work on universal facial expressions asserts that most people recognize emotions similarly. Ekman's primary example is that smiles are almost universally recognized as expressing happiness across cultures. While cultural norms and styles of communication may radically the frequency of a given expression, or the social context in which they are made, the fundamental expression is recognized across cultures.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that interacts with the brain's reward and pleasure centers, while oxytocin and vasopressin are known as the "hormones of attachment". The Pink Lens Effect refers to the feeling a person in love often has that convinces him/her that his/her loved one is perfect and can do no wrong.

The Commons Dilemma, or Tragedy of the Commons, refers to the tendency of groups (or individuals) sharing a common resource to each prioritize their own self-interest and claim more of the resource than is their fair share. This tendency can be combatted by teaching everyone that the needs of their neighbors should be valued as much as their own, and that they should act accordingly.

Example: A student fails a test, acknowledges that s/he didn't study enough and didn't understand some of the test's key questions, and subsequently meets with the teacher to request advice on ways to improve next time. This student would be said to have an internal locus of control.

The term "self-concept" refers to the sum total of beliefs that people have about themselves. The self-concept is made up of cognitive molecules or units called self-schemas: beliefs about oneself that guide the processing of self-relevant information.

Durability bias is present when people overestimate the strength and duration of their emotional reactions. When people participate in affective forecasting—the process of predicting how they would feel in response to future emotional events—durability biases are usually evident.

A false self is a self that a person may present to others while realizing that it does not represent what he or she is actually thinking and feeling in order to impress them. It is like a front that adolescents put up. Adolescents are more likely to exhibit their false selves when around romantic interests most likely because they are trying to impress them. They are likely to exhibit their true selves around close friends, and usually parents.

The term that best fits the definition is the "possible self."

Downward social comparison describes the perspective of looking 'down' to those of less fortune or greater hardships in order to cheer up. Often we will hear, "Oh, yeah, you are going through a rough time, but it could be worse. I know a guy who...(enter an even worse case scenario)." Sometimes, these little anecdotes can help us gain perspective and feel better, whereas upward social comparisons tend to make us feel worse about ourselves. For example, comparing oneself to a successful movie actor or Nobel Prize winner may leave one feeling pretty inadequate.

As opposed to other theories, which define the sense of self as belonging to our perceptions or otherwise, John Locke viewed the self as heavily bound with our episodic memories. This is because our episodic memories help us create a narrative about our lives and ourselves and thus creates a sense of continuity that, for instance, the semantic memory would not.

Abramson's theory examines three dimensions of attributing control of an event:

Internal vs External - am I in control, or is someone/something else?

Specific vs Global - is this true of just this one situation, or more generally?

Stable vs Unstable - will things be like this forever, or is there potential for change?

Depressed people will most likely have a stable and global external locus of control, believing themselves powerless in all aspects of their lives, and unable to ever seize control of their own lives.