Interpersonal Perceptions and Dynamics - AP Psychology

The false consensus effect describes how most people believe that other individuals have a similar mindset as themselves. This is a popular term in social psychology, along with concepts such as groupthink and group polarization.

The cocktail party effect is being able to listen to one voice amidst other voices and distractions. This term comes from the fact that cocktail parties often involve large conversations, during which you may wish to focus on one particular person's commentary.

Paul Ekman's work on universal facial expressions asserts that most people recognize emotions similarly. Ekman's primary example is that smiles are almost universally recognized as expressing happiness across cultures. While cultural norms and styles of communication may radically the frequency of a given expression, or the social context in which they are made, the fundamental expression is recognized across cultures.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that interacts with the brain's reward and pleasure centers, while oxytocin and vasopressin are known as the "hormones of attachment". The Pink Lens Effect refers to the feeling a person in love often has that convinces him/her that his/her loved one is perfect and can do no wrong.

The Commons Dilemma, or Tragedy of the Commons, refers to the tendency of groups (or individuals) sharing a common resource to each prioritize their own self-interest and claim more of the resource than is their fair share. This tendency can be combatted by teaching everyone that the needs of their neighbors should be valued as much as their own, and that they should act accordingly.

Through his studies of many diverse Western and Eastern cultures_—including the isolated Fore tribes of Papua New Guinea, who could not possibly have learned these facial expressions from the media of another people—_Ekman found universal facial expressions for joy, anger, fear, disgust and sadness.

By Mary Ainsworth, the Strange Situation Test is used to assess the various types of attachment. In the Strange Situation Test, infants or young children are put in a room with their caregiver. Secure attachment between the caregiver and child provides the base for the child's exploration. Upon leaving the child with a stranger in the room, Mary Ainsworth could assess the attachment between the caregiver and child.

If the child cries when the caregiver leaves and is relieved when they return, the attachment is secure. If the child cries when the caregiver leaves and continues to cry and resist the caregiver when they return, the attachment is resistant. If the child does not cry when the caregiver leaves and avoids contact when they return, the attachment is avoidant. Resistant and avoidant attachments are usually the result of an inconsistent caregiver.

By Mary Ainsworth, the Strange Situation Test is used to assess they types of attachment. In the Strange Situation Test, infants or young children are put in a room with their caregiver. Secure attachment between the caregiver and child provides the base for the child's exploration. Upon leaving the child with a stranger in the room, Mary Ainsworth could assess the attachment between the caregiver and child.

If the child cries when the caregiver leaves and is relieved when they return, the attachment is secure. If the child cries when the caregiver leaves and continues to cry and resist the caregiver when they return, the attachment is resistant. If the child does not cry when the caregiver leaves and avoids contact when they return, the attachment is avoidant.

Resistant and avoidant attachments are usually the result on an inconsistent caregiver; infants and young children learn that they cannot depend on their caregiver to consistently meet their needs. As a result, they are less dependent and attached to that caregiver.

The strategy of door-in-the-face is starting with a request bigger than your goal (100 miles to amusement park) and following it with your actual goal (10 miles to the movie theater), so that the real goal seems small and reasonable by comparison.

Foot-in-the-door is when you begin by getting someone to agree to a smaller request ($10 today) and follow it up with a larger request ($20 tomorrow).

Howard Gardner proposed that humans have multiple intelligences. Rather than having an overarching, general intelligence, he hypothesized that everyone had differing intelligences and gifts in eight specific areas: musical, visual, verbal, logical, bodily, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. According to Gardner, every individual had a unique ratio of these intelligences, each of which he referred to as "the g factor."

There is evidence today that supports Gardner’s theory. The cerebral cortex is divided into many different areas, each a different “Brodmann’s area.” Research shows that each area has different responsibilities. For example, a lack of cells in Brodmann area 24 is correlated with autism, while too many cells is correlated with William’s syndrome.

Evidence for Gardner’s theory can also be found when studying Savant syndrome. Individuals with Savant syndrome generally have low IQs and cannot solve simple problems, but are extremely gifted in one specific area. A Savant individual may not be able to solve a simple math problem like “2+2,” but may easily solve an abstract calculus concept.

Door-in-the-face is a compliance strategy that describes the phenomenon by which people are more likely to agree to a request if it is preceded by a much larger one. In this case, John begins by asking Mary to write his paper (the large request) and then immediately follows with the request that she edit it (the small request).

Foot-in-the-door is a compliance strategy that explains that once someone can get a person to agree to a small request, that person will be more likely to then agree to a larger request. In this case, Julie asks Jeff to vacuum the living room (the small request), which makes him more likely to agree to vacuum the whole house (the large request).

Colin's actions do not line up with his beliefs in this scenario and that causes a sense of conflict or tension, which psychologists label cognitive dissonance. According to this concept, Colin will be motivated to resolve the dissonance by either changing his beliefs or his actions. Hopefully, he will choose to work on his actions. Of note, low psychological absorption is a made up concept. Reactance has to do with our sense of freedom. Self-immunization involves minimizing our failures.

It is a well-known fact in social psychology, particular in the study of romantic relationships, that women are choosier about mates than men. This is because there is a higher social and biological risk for women who pick bad mates (e.g. social stigma and the biological costs associated with rearing children alone).

Physical attractiveness has an affect in nearly every part of life. Due to psychological phenomena like the halo effect (e.g. when one character trait of a person leads others to assume other traits about them), physical attractiveness can lead individuals to believe that someone seems more intelligent, likeable, or competent. In terms of job interviews and average salary, studies have shown that conventionally attractive people tend to get jobs more easily and make more money. And, of course, physical attractiveness is one criterion that people consider important with regard to dating and relationships.

Social exchange theory is the idea that social relationships are an exchange in which a participant tries to maximize benefits and minimize costs (e.g. if the costs get too high or the benefits too low, then an individual will end the relationship).

While intriguing, the other choices are incorrect. Comparison level for alternatives is the idea that people tend to stay in a relationship if they perceive that their relational outcomes would not be better in a different relationship and leave if they believe that their outcomes would be. Equity theory is the idea that people are happier in relationships where there is fair give and take by both people in the relationship. The halo effect is the idea that people tend to overgeneralize one character trait; for example, if someone is handsome, other people might overgeneralize that positive attribute and assume he's also funny and hardworking. Mere exposure effect is the idea that people tend to like things or people they are familiar with/exposed to more often.

Comparison level for alternatives is the idea that people tend to stay in a relationship if they perceive that their relational outcomes would not be better in a different relationship and leave if they believe that their outcomes would be better (such as a nicer partner).

While intriguing, the other choices are incorrect. Equity theory is the idea that people are happier in relationships where there is fair give and take by both people in the relationship. The halo effect is the idea that people tend to overgeneralize one character trait; for example, if someone is handsome, other people might overgeneralize that positive attribute and assume he's also funny and hardworking. Mere exposure effect is the idea that people tend to like things or people they are familiar with/exposed to more often. \ Social exchange theory is the idea that social relationships are an exchange in which a participant tries to maximize benefits and minimize costs; if the costs get too high or the benefits too low, they will end the relationship.

Equity theory is the idea that people are happier in relationships where there is fair give and take by both people in the relationship.

While intriguing, the other choices are incorrect. The halo effect is the idea that people tend to overgeneralize one character trait; for example, if someone is handsome, other people might overgeneralize that positive attribute and assume he's also funny and hardworking. Mere exposure effect is the idea that people tend to like things or people they are familiar with/exposed to more often. Social exchange theory is the idea that social relationships are an exchange in which a participant tries to maximize benefits and minimize costs; if the costs get too high or the benefits too low, they will end the relationship. Comparison level for alternatives is the idea that people tend to stay in a relationship if they perceive that their relational outcomes would not be better in a different relationship and leave if they believe that their outcomes would be.

The halo effect is the idea that people tend to overgeneralize one character trait; for example, if someone is handsome, other people might overgeneralize that positive attribute and assume he's also funny and hardworking.

While intriguing, the other choices are incorrect. Mere exposure effect is the idea that people tend to like things or people they are familiar with/exposed to more often. Social exchange theory is the idea that social relationships are an exchange in which a participant tries to maximize benefits and minimize costs; if the costs get too high or the benefits too low, they will end the relationship. Comparison level for alternatives is the idea that people tend to stay in a relationship if they perceive that their relational outcomes would not be better in a different relationship and leave if they believe that their outcomes would be. Equity theory is the idea that people are happier in relationships where there is fair give and take by both people in the relationship.