Cognition and Consciousness - AP Psychology

The best definition of problem solving is making an active effort to achieve a goal that cannot be easily attained. At times, individuals view this unmet need as a problem and whatever means he or she comes up with to fulfill that need is the solution. The process of coming up with this solution is known as problem solving.

Problems involving structure usually require figuring out the relationship between two elements. Take this analogy problem: women are to men as sweets are to                     . The problem requires you to figure out the implied (i.e. not explicit) relationship between women and men and apply it to sweets. Structural problems are primarily based on relationships between parts.

Problems associated with arranging involve moving parts to fulfill a certain criterion. This manifests in many forms. Puzzles, anagrams, and block building are all forms of arrangement tasks. In the example provided in the answer, the letters are appropriately arranged to make the word “dancing.”

There are many resources at our disposal to solve problems. We can use trial and error, algorithms, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, dialectical reasoning, heuristics, forming sub-goals, and similar problems to help us approach the problem at hand. No single one method is measurably better than the other but some are more appropriate for particular problems.

Information only remains in our short-term memory for about 30 seconds. At the end of this time, this information is either forgotten or transferred to long-term memory.

A "mental set" is an obstacle to problem solving which involves fixating only on solutions that have worked in the past. For instance, someone who knows that yelling and throwing a fit has gotten them what they wanted might only use this solution to get they want in the present. Instead, it might be more effective to think of a new solution.

When a person is presented with a problem this problem may be presented with irrelevant information. That is, this information will not be useful when coming up with a solution. This is a common device used in riddles. Teasing out irrelevant information entails figuring out what precisely is being asked of you for the solution.

Trial and error is an appropriate approach to a problem when the number of possible solutions is relatively small. If number of possible solutions were large, then using trial and error would potentially take too long and be ineffective. If someone is presented with five light switches, they might try each one until they find the correct one. If someone is presented with 300 light switches, then trial error might not be the best option.

All of these answers are examples of algorithms. Algorithms are problems involving a step-by-step procedure to get one goal. This is not restricted to just math as one might think. People use algorithms in day-to-day life whether baking cookies using a particular recipe or driving somewhere by using directions.

Short-term memories are stored differently than long-term memories. Short-term memories generally include quick observations, and are only stored for 10-30 seconds. Short-term memories must be processed and stored as long-term memory in order to be accessible for any longer period of time.

A succinct and clear definition for cognition could be the following: "thinking, reasoning, remembering or almost any other activity in the brain." Cognition drastically changes throughout our lifetimes and is the object of much psychological study. In other words, the correct choice for the basic and clear definition of cognition is the following: "cognition relates to almost any activity in the brain, particularly thinking, reasoning and remembering."

Implicit memory refers to memories that do not rely upon conscious recall activities. Procedural memory is the type of memory that we use to do everyday tasks like tying our shoes or riding a bike. These activities do not require our conscious awareness of our previous attempts.

A circadian rhythm is any process that abides by a 24-hour rhythm. It is best known for helping to tell our bodies when they need sleep. Having a disrupted circadian rhythm is related to negative health outcomes, including various neurological and cardiological problems.

Making assumptions may make us skip over important information we may need to solve a problem. This can happen in a variety of problems, especially when they involve people. We carry around many preconceived notions about how people and our society work. If we have a problem understanding a certain phenomena in society, it may be due to these kinds of assumptions. For instance, patriarchal society once widely assumed that women were destined for housework and many people didn't understand why women were so happy. They attributed it to their "biology". Instead, it's better understood that women desire just as much as men to participate in and feel like they belong in their society.

Decision-making involves weighing alternatives and choosing between them. The other answers are a part of decision making but are too specific to the methods for our decision making processes. For instance, it isn't just risky decisions that involve weighing alternatives and choosing between them, but all decisions. The other answers are strategies for how we weigh the alternatives at hand.

The economist Herbert Simon noted that people very often do not make rational decisions. This is primarily due to the fact that it is difficult to simultaneously evaluate all possible options and so they tend to only focus on a few aspects of the available options. For instance, some people may be overly focused on what they'll lose in a certain options instead of how much they have to gain.

Sleep occurs in 4 stages, NREM-1, NREM-2, NREM-3, and REM.

It's during the first stage of sleep (NREM-1) that you may experience images that resemble hallucinations. These experiences occur without a sensory stimulation and can sometimes be later incorporated into one's memories.

Additive strategies are commonly used when people are making decisions about their preferences. When using an additive strategy, a person lists the traits of each potential choice, weights them according to importance, adds them up, and determines which one is more appealing based on the result. Another common strategy is a strategy of elimination, which will not be discussed in detail here.

REM (rapid eye-movement) sleep is the fifth and final stage of sleep during which the body is in it's deepest sleep. Dreaming is most frequent, most vivid, and most memorable during REM sleep; however, other dreaming can occur during the other sleep stages.