Individual Psychology and Behavior - AP Psychology

The light is considered the conditioned stimulus because it results in the conditioned response only after it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. the loud noise). Prior to learning, the conditioned stimulus does not elicit the learning response. On the other hand, the unconditioned stimulus always causes the response, even without learning. The unconditioned and conditioned responses are the subject's jumping behaviors.

Forward conditioning is an effective form of classical conditioning. Forward conditioning includes both trace and delay conditioning. In trace conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented first, is then stopped/removed, and then the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented. While this can be effective, it is not the most effective of the choices. The most effective form of forward conditioning is delay conditioning, where the CS is presented and then overlaps with the US. In backward conditioning the US is presented before the CS, and does not result in any learning. Simultaneous conditioning occurs when both the US and CS are presented at the same time.

The dog was conditioned to expect food after hearing the bell or sound, which caused him to salivate before eating. After many repetitions, even before the food arrived, the dog expected to be fed soon after hearing the bell; therefore, the salivation was conditioned to happen after hearing the sound.

The correct answer is classical conditioning. In classical conditioning you can train an animal to have a response to an unrelated stimuli. Originally clapping was not associated with going for a walk. Because you associated them together the dog is now conditioned to think clapping means he is going for a walk. On the other hand the rest of the choices are incorrect. Operant conditioning is training a certain desired behavior by reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is an example of operant conditioning. This is when you take something good away to create a desired behavior. Such as taking away a child's cell phone until they clean their room. Positive reinforcement is another example of operant conditioning. This is when you give something good to create a desired behavior. An example of this is giving a child a cookie because they cleaned their room. Last, positive punishment is when you add something bad to decrease a behavior. An example of this is if you spank a child for misbehaving.

The pupil is the hole at the center of the iris which allows light to enter the eye and reach the photosensitive retina. The iris is a circular structure on the surface of the eye which controls the size of the pupil. When we discuss eye color, we are referring to the pigment of the iris. The iris and pupil can both expand and constrict. In order to protect the eyes from excessively bright light, in conditions of bright lighting, the iris will expand in size, causing the pupil to constrict, thus allowing less light to pass into the eyes. The opposite is true in dim lighting: the iris will constrict, causing the pupil to expand in size, and allow more light in.

Neither the iris nor the pupil help to focus vision. Focusing is performed by the lens within the eye. This is done by correctly aligning light from an object with the retina, not to control the intensity of light entering the eye.

When Skinner developed the operant conditioning box, it famously became known as the Skinner box. When a stimulus was presented, the box was designed such that a reward (or punishment) could be delivered depending on the subject's reaction to the stimulus. For example, when a light was shown, a mouse could push a lever and receive food.

This is an elimination strategy. An elimination strategy is a decision making strategy where one sets a certain criteria and any options that do not meet this criteria will be automatically be eliminated. Although John deciding where to eat is certainly a form of judgment and cognition, these answers aren't sufficient because they are not as specific to what this process was. An additive strategy is a different type of process all together.

All of these are fallacies that impede one's ability to make decisions based on accurate reasons. The tendency to ignore base rates involves inaccurate correlation rates. For instance, if a person sees a man with motorcycle related tattoos they are likely to think he is a motorcycle owner. Yet they ignore the fact that the large majority of Americans are car-owners. The gambler's fallacy is summed up by the phrase "I'm due for a win!" Minimizing risk involves making a decision because the option is presented in positive terms. Overestimation of the improbable is when a person thinks the chances of an actually rare event are higher than they are.

Sigmund Freud is considered to be "the father" of psychoanalysis. This theoretical orientation believes that people can be cured of psychiatric illnesses by bringing their unconscious thoughts to the surface to be addressed. This allows repressed emotions and behaviors to be released and dealt with by the therapist and patient.

A succinct and clear definition for cognition could be the following: "thinking, reasoning, remembering or almost any other activity in the brain." Cognition drastically changes throughout our lifetimes and is the object of much psychological study. In other words, the correct choice for the basic and clear definition of cognition is the following: "cognition relates to almost any activity in the brain, particularly thinking, reasoning and remembering."

Implicit memory refers to memories that do not rely upon conscious recall activities. Procedural memory is the type of memory that we use to do everyday tasks like tying our shoes or riding a bike. These activities do not require our conscious awareness of our previous attempts.

Hair cells within the inner ear and olfactory cilia within the nasal passage both act as receptors of sensory information. Receptors trigger neural signals to be interpreted (i.e. perceived) by the brain. Even though hair cells in the inner ear vibrate to detect sound, smells are not sensed by olfactory cilia using the same mechanisms. As a part of the olfactory system, olfactory cilia are located within the nasal passage, not the inner ear. Neither hair cells nor olfactory cilia shrivel when exposed to sensory information.

Unlike the other sensory systems, the skin is saturated with sensory receptors all over the body. There are places where nerves are more concentrated; however, there is no location where the sense of touch is centralized (i.e. it is sensed all over). On the other hand, the receptors for the auditory system are located in the cochlea, the gustatory receptors are located on the taste buds, and the olfactory system receptors are located within the upper portion of the nasal passage.

When the eardrum vibrates, it moves the tiny ossicles. The ossicles are three bones in the middle ear that are among the smallest bones in the human body. These bones serve to transmit sounds from the eardrum to the cochlea.

The ossicles are the three smallest bones in the human body. They contain the anvil and transmit auditory perceptions to the cochlea. Within the cochlea, auditory receptors transmit these perceptions to sensory neurons and further to the brain. This is completed by transmitting sound from the air in the ossicles to the fluid within the cochlea.

The five traditional taste sensations are sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami. Spicy is a sensation that is combined with both taste and pain. This makes it a compound sensation and is untraditional in the way that a gustatory receptor would interpret this kind of taste.

The absolute threshold is the minimum energy necessary for an individual to sense a given stimulus. This is not to be confused with the just-noticeable difference (JND), which defines the proportional amount of change in stimulus that can be perceived.

Information only remains in our short-term memory for about 30 seconds. At the end of this time, this information is either forgotten or transferred to long-term memory.

Oxytocin works on a positive feedback loop because the actions which oxytocin causes also cause more oxytocin to be produced. This can be seen, among other examples, in the contractions of labor.