Individual Psychology and Behavior - AP Psychology

Generalization refers to the tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to induce the conditioned response. For example, a dog’s owner rings a bell when he feeds his dog. Over successive occurrences, a dog might begin to salivate to bells of a slightly different timbre.

The light is considered the conditioned stimulus because it results in the conditioned response only after it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. the loud noise). Prior to learning, the conditioned stimulus does not elicit the learning response. On the other hand, the unconditioned stimulus always causes the response, even without learning. The unconditioned and conditioned responses are the subject's jumping behaviors.

Forward conditioning is an effective form of classical conditioning. Forward conditioning includes both trace and delay conditioning. In trace conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented first, is then stopped/removed, and then the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented. While this can be effective, it is not the most effective of the choices. The most effective form of forward conditioning is delay conditioning, where the CS is presented and then overlaps with the US. In backward conditioning the US is presented before the CS, and does not result in any learning. Simultaneous conditioning occurs when both the US and CS are presented at the same time.

The correct answer is classical conditioning. In classical conditioning you can train an animal to have a response to an unrelated stimuli. Originally clapping was not associated with going for a walk. Because you associated them together the dog is now conditioned to think clapping means he is going for a walk. On the other hand the rest of the choices are incorrect. Operant conditioning is training a certain desired behavior by reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is an example of operant conditioning. This is when you take something good away to create a desired behavior. Such as taking away a child's cell phone until they clean their room. Positive reinforcement is another example of operant conditioning. This is when you give something good to create a desired behavior. An example of this is giving a child a cookie because they cleaned their room. Last, positive punishment is when you add something bad to decrease a behavior. An example of this is if you spank a child for misbehaving.

The limbic system is composed of the septum, cingulate gyrus, hypothalamus, and amygdala, plus other more minor formations. This system is particularly associated with the formation of memory.

When Skinner developed the operant conditioning box, it famously became known as the Skinner box. When a stimulus was presented, the box was designed such that a reward (or punishment) could be delivered depending on the subject's reaction to the stimulus. For example, when a light was shown, a mouse could push a lever and receive food.

B.F. Skinner is considered to be the founder of operant conditioning (the type of learning in which the effects of an action determine whether it will be repeated in the future). He is most famous for Skinner's box-- a box in which he placed animals to conduct operant conditioning experiments.

Classical conditioning can be thought of as learning through association and operant conditioning as learning through effect. Positive, negative, and punishment conditioning as methods do not exist.

Current research has contradicted Piaget's original notion that children do not possess much cognitive ability until they are a year old. Instead, it suggests that children as young as 4 months have a basic understanding of physics. For instance, a four-month-old can recognize that solid objects cannot pass through other solid objects and that objects roll down slopes instead of up.

The best definition of problem solving is making an active effort to achieve a goal that cannot be easily attained. At times, individuals view this unmet need as a problem and whatever means he or she comes up with to fulfill that need is the solution. The process of coming up with this solution is known as problem solving.

Problems involving structure usually require figuring out the relationship between two elements. Take this analogy problem: women are to men as sweets are to                     . The problem requires you to figure out the implied (i.e. not explicit) relationship between women and men and apply it to sweets. Structural problems are primarily based on relationships between parts.

Problems associated with arranging involve moving parts to fulfill a certain criterion. This manifests in many forms. Puzzles, anagrams, and block building are all forms of arrangement tasks. In the example provided in the answer, the letters are appropriately arranged to make the word “dancing.”

There are many resources at our disposal to solve problems. We can use trial and error, algorithms, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, dialectical reasoning, heuristics, forming sub-goals, and similar problems to help us approach the problem at hand. No single one method is measurably better than the other but some are more appropriate for particular problems.

Information only remains in our short-term memory for about 30 seconds. At the end of this time, this information is either forgotten or transferred to long-term memory.

A "mental set" is an obstacle to problem solving which involves fixating only on solutions that have worked in the past. For instance, someone who knows that yelling and throwing a fit has gotten them what they wanted might only use this solution to get they want in the present. Instead, it might be more effective to think of a new solution.

When a person is presented with a problem this problem may be presented with irrelevant information. That is, this information will not be useful when coming up with a solution. This is a common device used in riddles. Teasing out irrelevant information entails figuring out what precisely is being asked of you for the solution.

Motivation is not included among the list of human needs according to Maslow. Maslow identified five levels in his hierarchy: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization.

Oxytocin works on a positive feedback loop because the actions which oxytocin causes also cause more oxytocin to be produced. This can be seen, among other examples, in the contractions of labor.

Chromosomes are complex structures that contain a molecule of DNA and a protein. DNA strands contain genetic information.

Trial and error is an appropriate approach to a problem when the number of possible solutions is relatively small. If number of possible solutions were large, then using trial and error would potentially take too long and be ineffective. If someone is presented with five light switches, they might try each one until they find the correct one. If someone is presented with 300 light switches, then trial error might not be the best option.