Consciousness - AP Psychology

REM is arguably the most important stage of sleep, and it is the last stage of our sleep cycle until it repeats all over again. Due to the heightened activity in our brains, we may have more intense dreams during this period. Also during this time, our heart rate and breathing quickens, and our body restores itself.

A delta wave is a wave with a high amplitude (height on graph) and has a frequency of 0-4 Hz (fairly slow). Delta waves are helpful to note on a scan because they can help characterize how deeply a person is sleeping; in certain disorders (such as alcoholism) delta waves are disrupted by other wave forms, showing that a person is not getting the type of rest required by the body.

Melatonin is released by the pineal gland in response to circadian rhythms and other environmental clues, like darkness. It causes drowsiness and helps induce sleep.

Night terrors are characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified. Stage 4 is our deepest sleep stage, so it is difficult for those with night terrors to escape their terror by waking up (unlike nightmares).

Delta waves occur during deep sleep (stage 4) and are associated with dreaming. In contrast, alpha waves are relatively slow brain waves that occur during a relaxed, awake state.

The average amount of sleep an adult gets is 8 hours. Everyone is different, however; where some adults function off of 6 hours, others need at least 9 hours or more to feel healthy and awake.

Circadian rythm is responsible for the cycles of our blood pressure, metabolism, and body temperature. It contributes to our levels of energy throughout the day and is responsible for our descension in sleepiness as night falls.

After stage 1, which lasts about 5-10 minutes, is stage 2 during which we slowly enter deep sleep. This stage is still considered light sleep, corresponds to a drop in body temperature. We can still be woken up fairly easily. Stage 3 is when we enter heavier, deep sleep.

Rapid-eye movement (REM) is the stage during which most dreaming occurs. It is the last stage in the cycle of sleep and gets longer and more frequent the longer you sleep.

There are three primary theories of hypnosis.

Non-state, also known as "role theory," claims that hypnosis does not alter one's state of mind. Instead, the person undergoing hypnosis is acting out a particular role for a therapeutic benefit.

State theory asserts that a person does not have any agency in the matter of hypnosis. Rather, they are completely submerged in a different state of mind.

The third theory is dissocation, in which a person involuntarily decides to split their own consciousness.

There is no definitive proof to back up any of these claims, though hypnosis remains a popular way to treat a variety of disorders.

"Highly-suggestible" is the term for people who are more easily hypnotized.

There are many purposeful ways to induce an altered state of consciousness, but some accidental or pathological ones include infections, sleep deprivation, or psychosis. Some others are fasting, epilepsy, or traumatic experiences. An altered state of consciousness due to any of these is often an indicator of either a mental or physical health issue and should be addressed right away.

Priming refers to a person's ability to more quickly/accurately respond to previously asked questions, whether they remember them or not. This is closely related to the mere-exposure effect, which states that we are more likely to prefer familiar things than unfamiliar things.

Psychoactive drugs are any substances that alter behavior, mood, memory, or perception. Some are stimulants, such as the caffeine found in coffee. Others are depressants, such as alcohol.

Antagonists are a type of psychoactive drug. Psychoactive drugs are drugs that change the chemistry of the brain. There are two types that do this: antagonists and agonists. Agonists change the chemistry of the brain by mimicking neurotransmitters. Antagonists also change the chemistry of the brain, but they do not mimic neurotransmitters. Instead, they simply prevent neurotransmitters from entering receptor sites.

Opiates, such as heroin, are drugs derived from the opium poppy. These highly addictive substances are used as mood elevators and painkillers.

Alpha waves are a type of brain wave that occurs when a person is about to fall asleep. The person will be relaxed and unfocused but still aware of their surroundings.

To some degree, most individuals are open for suggestions; however, there are some that are more open to them than others. These individuals are more likely to be hypnotizable. For instance, this may be observed in the phenomenon known as postural sway. In this process, a group of individuals are lined up and told to stand straight with their eyes closed. Afterwards, a person will randomly call out individuals and tell them that they are swaying. It has been observed that people who are highly open to suggestion may begin to sway when they were not previously. These types of individuals are more likely to experience hypnosis.

Tolerance is what occurs when the effects of the same dose of drug diminishes over extended use. Upon repeated exposure, the brain will begin to adjust its chemistry to counteract the effects of the drug. Because exposure needs to be regular for tolerance to occur, the option about random exposure would be incorrect. It's common to observe those who have become tolerant to begin increasing their usual dose. This is a potential outcome of tolerance; therefore, this option is incorrect. While some drugs may have an affect on individuals upon exposure only once, this does not entail tolerance. This becomes a matter of an individual becoming "hooked" on the drug; therefore, this option would also be incorrect. When an individual decides to stop, the body may undergo withdrawal if the individual has developed a physical dependence and is addicted to the drug; thus, this answer is also incorrect.