Political Protest; Reforms; Revolution - AP European History

The French people did not argue that the monarchy was not dedicated to the Catholic cause. Rather, they saw the regime as wasteful, oppressive of the poor, and too attached to the clergy.

Chartists, although they did have some socialist inspiration, primarily sought to reorganize the British state to render it more equitable. Among the reforms envisioned in their massive, multi-million signature petitions were universal male suffrage, the secret ballot, salaries for parliamentary representatives and annual elections, but not popular initiatives.

The Thermidorian Reaction refers to the counter-revolt in 1794 that unseated Robespierre and signalled the end of the Reign of Terror.

The 1917 Russian Revolution was really two revolutions, with the later October Revolution building on developments of the February Revolution. The February Revolution grew out of street protests against the Tsarist government's war policies and food shortages; it resulted in the overthrow of the Tsar and the creation of a provisional republican government. The October Revolution was largely organized by the Soviet socialist groups who had gained power since the overthrow of the Tsar; these groups, led by Joseph Stalin, created a centralized, communist state that would become known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (the USSR).

Martin Luther believed that merit alone should be the sole judge of who could get into heaven. Monetary indulgences were essentially free passes into heaven for those who could afford it, meaning that, in essence, the Catholic church was perpetuating the idea that the rich could get into heaven with money alone. Luther also believed that full and equal access to scripture was paramount, and therefore translated the Bible from Latin into German, even after being excommunicated and exiled.

The Glorious Revolution came about because of dissatisfaction in England with King James II, a Catholic monarch. The king was overthrown in favor of Mary, the Protestant daughter of James II, and her husband, William of Orange (a Dutch nobleman), who assumed a joint monarchy. The name "the Glorious Revolution" is somewhat misleading due to the fact that there was fighting, but it was minimal compared to the normal conflict that usually ensued during a transition of power in England. The fact that the movement was carried out by Parliament helped to legitimize the transition and quell violence. Overall, this revolution was far more organized and less violent than previous ones.

In 1789 the French Revolutionary Government passed the Declaration of the rights of man to outline the universal rights all men shared, that should be protected by the government. The Bill of Rights refers to the first 10 amendments to the US constitution. Petition of Right is an English constitutional document. Sans-Coulettes was the term for common people in pre-revolutionary France, not the name of a rights document at all.

Oliver Cromwell was a fervent Puritan who served as a military commander and leader in the English Civil War that overthrew King Charles I of England. After the king was deposed and executed, England became a commonwealth that was led by the Rump Parliament, and in 1653, Cromwell was declared Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland, essentially becoming a dictator with unlimited power. Upon his death in 1658, he was briefly succeeded by his son, Robert, but Robert lacked the strength of his father and the monarchy was restored in 1660 to King Charles II.

Bastille Day celebrates the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille fortress, July 14th, 1789; which was the beginning of the French Revolution.

The Committee of Public Safety was the government in control of France in the wake of the Revolution. They felt the only way to keep France safe was to kill anyone that held political views that were in opposition to the Revolution. As such many Royalists, former nobility, and those holding more conservative political stances were condemned to death.

Charles V was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (which spanned central Europe and, most notably, Germany) and had significant influence in Europe. When Luther was summoned to appear at the Diet of Worms, he initially refused because he believed that the church would arrest him on his way there; that is what the church had done before with people who vocally opposed it. Frederick of Saxony advocated on Luther’s behalf and convinced Charles to provide Luther with an escort to the Diet under the Emperor’s flag, meaning that he would be completely safe. It was only through Charles’ protection that Luther agreed to appear before church and secular leaders.

Although the Levellers did want to expand the electorate, they were only one part of the Parliamentarians, who were only one side of the fight during the Civil War. All of the other answers describe tensions that led to the war--increased taxation, fears over Catholicism, and the inability of Parliament and King Charles I to work together.

The Bastille was a military fort in Paris that was converted into a prison, primarily for political prisoners. To many ordinary people, it represented the monarchy’s unlimited power and its ability to oppress those who disagreed with the monarch. The Bastille also contained gunpowder and other weapons that the people needed to fight the royal army. This need combined with the symbolism of the prison led it to be sacked by Parisians on July 14, 1789, when the citizens captured the prison, killed the governor and soldiers, and gained weapons. This conflict is regarded as the primary start of the French Revolution, as the citizens were able to defeat the monarch’s forces and show their power.

After the end of the Tudor line, the King of Scotland, James VI of Scotland, was invited by Parliament to take the throne of England and untie the two nations under one Stuart monarchy.

Poland became the first nation to adopt a Constitution in 1791 when it attempted late reforms meant to pull the nation together and to defend against increased aggression by Poland's neighbors. It ultimately proved to serve the opposite as a new Polish government under this constitution would have been more powerful, and thus prompted Poland's neighbors (Prussia, Russia, and Austria) to invade and take over before this could happen.

The House of Bourbon controlled the monarchy before the French Revolution, with the king and his family being executed in 1793 during the revolution. After various dysfunctional governments ruled, Napoleon took power as emperor in 1804. While in charge, he continually expanded France, much to the disdain of other European powers. In 1814, Napoleon was defeated by Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, who placed King Louis XVIII on the throne of France due to indication of some support for the monarchy. Louis enacted many of the provisions that had been initiated during the revolution and agreed to a constitutional monarchy. Napoleon attempted a comeback in 1815, forcing Louis to give up the throne, but Napoleon was permanently defeated at Waterloo on June 18, 1815. Louis was then put back on the throne, but was held up by the allies who had defeated Napoleon until Louis XVIII died in 1824.

Pope John Paul II, born Karol Wojtyla, was a Polish cardinal who became pope in 1978. At the time, the USSR still had tremendous influence and power throughout Europe, particularly Poland. Poland was in turmoil as many workers were angry at the incompetent communist government and the poor economy. The pope went back to Poland in 1979, where he spoke about how each person had rights and helped to unite and inspire the people. The Catholic church then became an active participant in the fight against communism and worked to unify workers against communist regimes. It was through the church’s influence and involvement that many people turned against communism, with Pope John Paul II leading the fight.

The Reign of Terror was a period of time during the French Revolution when violence and summary executions took place throughout France. The guillotine became synonymous with the Revolution, as tens of thousands of people were sent to their deaths.

1848 is known as the "Year of Revolutions" in European history. A series of ad hoc coalitions in several different European countries formed. They sought the overthrow of the established political order and the implementation of a more liberal and democratic system of government. The revolutions were unsuccessful, at least in the immediacy, as the reactionary forces were able to defeat the revolutions pretty much everywhere. There were lasting consequences and real concessions in some places, however. More importantly, from a progressive-narrative approach to history, the revolutions were one of the most significant movements from absolutism to republicanism in European history.