Energy Production and Usage - AP Environmental Science

While coal was the predominant source of energy during the Industrial Revolution, advancements in petroleum extraction and refining resulted in petroleum and natural gas becoming the dominant industrial fuel source in the 1950s. This pattern has existed to this day.

The fuel efficiency of the vehicle can be calculated as such:

This equation gives us the energy converted to forward motion per gallon of gas. We can use this value to determine the percent of total fuel energy that is devoted to forward motion:

From these calculations, we can determine that 25% of the energy from a gallon of gas is converted to actual forward motion of the vehicle, giving us a fuel efficiency value of 25%.

All of the answers are part of energy conservation. But to be net zero the building has to produce energy and cannot be using any more than it produces.

Fossil fuels are notoriously dirty sources of energy, and their pollution is often expensive and/or difficult to control.

Currently available natural gas reserves are expected to last another 75 years at the current rate of consumption.

The least efficient and most abundant form of coal is lignite; after this comes bituminous coal, then, lastly, anthracite. Anthracite is a very hard form of coal with an extremely high carbon content. Anthracite also burns the cleanest of any coal, but unfortunately it is the least abundant and hardest to reach form of coal. Charcoal is not coal at all, but rather compressed and burned wood, consisting mainly of carbon and any remaining ash.

The United States is 5% of the world Population and consumes 25% of global fossil fuel production. In addition, North America peaked in oil production in the 1970's which, when combined with a disproportionately high demand, results in a national dependence on foreign-sourced oil.

Clean coal technology is a promising solution to minimizing pollution from coal plants, and coal is one of the most abundant fossil fuels on the planet, with reserves potentially lasting up to three hundred years. Coal is also very energy-dense when compared to biomass or other renewable energy sources; however, the sulphur content of coal varies based on geographic location, and in areas that depend on locally sourced, sulphur-rich coal, the resulting emissions contribute heavily to acidic precipitation.

Fracking is the process of blasting rocks with a mixture of water, sand, and chemicals in order to extract oil from a well. It has grown in popularity in recent years, particularly in the U.S. and Canada.

Producing nuclear energy is a lot cleaner than most people realize, and while it is expensive (but still profitable), it represents a legitimate option for producing cleaner energy. The main drawback is that the resulting "spent fuel" has to be secured and stored, because it cannot be safely disposed of without significant repercussions.

U-235 differs from U-238 in that U-235 is able to produce a fission chain reaction. U-238 is the most common isotope of uranium, with the U-235 isotope constituting less than 1% of natural sources. Uranium enrichment is the process by which U-235 is separated out, and it is this product that is most commonly used to manufacture nuclear weapons. Pu-239 is produced from U-238 and can be used for nuclear weapons as well, but Pu-239 is not an answer choice.

The energy output from a hydro-electric dam is substantial enough to result in most of America's major rivers being damned. The more pressing issues that these damns cause are changes to the aquatic ecosystem and restriction of movement for migratory fish species.

The Energy Star certification is a standard of energy efficiency for consumer electronics and appliances that is higher than what is required by federal standards. The program was a joint venture by the Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Energy and has since become an internationally-recognized standard.

Electric cars with a gas engine are classified as Hybrids, not All-Electric Vehicles. The other answers address the environmental impact of manufacturing and parts, and while these impacts are substantial, their ongoing impact is miniscule when compared to the footprint from regular driving. The majority electricity in America is generated by the burning of fossil fuels, which means driving an electric car regularly still has a carbon footprint and a significant one at that.

The tragedy of commons is a term used today to describe a situation wherein individuals acting independently and rationally according to their own self-interest behave contrary to the best interests of the greater population by depleting a common resource. In opposition, the examples of ranchers managing common ground and collective farming of grapes are examples of individuals working together in a common interest. Additionally, allocating nuclear waste to one area is rather an example of sacrificing a small area for the greater population, and using national forests for wood production and harvesting is simply disobeying the everyone's interests by depleting resources and breaking the law. However, the depletion of fishing stocks is a perfect example of the tragedy of the commons: It is the ravaging of a greater population's shared natural resource in favor of individual and commercial interest.

CAFE is a standard enacted by U.S. Congress in 1975 with the objective to improve fuel economy for all vehicles produced for sale in the U.S. The acronym stands for Corporate Average Fuel Economy, because it applies to automotive corporations marketing cars in the U.S. and the objective was to improve average fuel economy.

CAFE is an ever-increasing average fuel economy standard that automobile manufacturers must satisfy in order to market their fleet of vehicles in the United States. This regulation is targeted toward new vehicles.

Example: Current CAFE standards mandate a manufacturer's fleet average miles per gallon in fuel economy. If a car company produces three cars, rated at 35, 30 and 20 mpg, average fuel economy would be determined as:

Based upon their average fleet fuel economy, this car company could now sell their vehicles in the United States for the 2015 model year.

The fuel economy standards established by CAFE are more strict and demand more fuel efficiency for passenger cars than for light trucks. Passenger cars are defined as having a Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR) of less than 8500 lbs, while a light truck is a vehicle with a GVWR greater than 8500 lbs. The light truck classification was initially for utility and commercial vehicles, but since many SUVs exceed the GVWR rating for a passenger car, they are regulated separately from the fleet of passenger cars and are not subject to stringent fuel economy standards.

First we want to determine the difference in minimum fuel economy standards and the actual fuel economy of Company A's fleet:

Given that Company A's fleet is out of compliance by and they have sold passenger cars in U.S. markets, we can calculate the fine as such:

Therefore, the total penalties for Company A totals for the entire fleet.