Understanding Types of Cellular Communication - AP Biology
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Which of the following is a cellular response due to ligand binding and activation of intracellular receptors?
Which of the following is a cellular response due to ligand binding and activation of intracellular receptors?
Intracellular receptors are found in the cytoplasm of the cell. Ligands for intracellular receptors are usually small molecules that can pass through the cell membrane, and include substances such as steroid hormones. Upon binding and activation, intracellular receptors bind specific DNA motifs in the nucleus and function as transcription factors, directly changing expression of genes.
In contrast, transmembrane receptors are embedded in the plasma membrane and bind extracellular ligands to mediate intracellular responses. Ligand binding to transmembrane receptors often initiates a signal cascade or mediates channel activity within the membrane of the cell.
Intracellular receptors are found in the cytoplasm of the cell. Ligands for intracellular receptors are usually small molecules that can pass through the cell membrane, and include substances such as steroid hormones. Upon binding and activation, intracellular receptors bind specific DNA motifs in the nucleus and function as transcription factors, directly changing expression of genes.
In contrast, transmembrane receptors are embedded in the plasma membrane and bind extracellular ligands to mediate intracellular responses. Ligand binding to transmembrane receptors often initiates a signal cascade or mediates channel activity within the membrane of the cell.
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Peptide hormones differ from steroid hormones in that they .
Peptide hormones differ from steroid hormones in that they .
Seeing as peptide hormones are generally large, water-soluble molecules, they cannot transverse the phospholipid membrane. Instead, they must act through a membrane-bound protein receptor. Steroid hormones are generally small, fat-soluble organic molecules that can easily travel through the phospholipid membrane and the nuclear membrane. They can then act on transcription factors or interact directly with DNA. Both peptide and steroid hormones initiate changes within the cell; they simply do so by different mechanisms.
Seeing as peptide hormones are generally large, water-soluble molecules, they cannot transverse the phospholipid membrane. Instead, they must act through a membrane-bound protein receptor. Steroid hormones are generally small, fat-soluble organic molecules that can easily travel through the phospholipid membrane and the nuclear membrane. They can then act on transcription factors or interact directly with DNA. Both peptide and steroid hormones initiate changes within the cell; they simply do so by different mechanisms.
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Which of the following choices is not a part of the cell signalling sequence?
Which of the following choices is not a part of the cell signalling sequence?
Cell signaling is the process used by cells to communicate and control cellular activities. It can occur both within and between cells. The correct sequence of events that takes place during cell signaling is as follows: reception, transduction, and response. The reception stage is the detection of a signal, typically by a receptor on the cell surface. Next, transduction is characterized by the transmission of signals from the cell’s exterior to its interior by way of proteins. Finally, the response is the subsequent cellular reaction to the signaling. Cell signaling is critically important in normal cell function and widely diversified.
Cell signaling is the process used by cells to communicate and control cellular activities. It can occur both within and between cells. The correct sequence of events that takes place during cell signaling is as follows: reception, transduction, and response. The reception stage is the detection of a signal, typically by a receptor on the cell surface. Next, transduction is characterized by the transmission of signals from the cell’s exterior to its interior by way of proteins. Finally, the response is the subsequent cellular reaction to the signaling. Cell signaling is critically important in normal cell function and widely diversified.
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Which of the following best describes the location of the ligand-binding domain on a G protein-coupled receptor?
Which of the following best describes the location of the ligand-binding domain on a G protein-coupled receptor?
G protein-coupled receptors are part of a large class of receptors involved in intercellular signaling. Structurally, G protein-coupled receptors have an extracellular N terminus, seven transmembrane helices, three intracellular loops, three extracellular loops, and an intracellular C terminus. The ligand-binding domain is within the transmembrane helices.
G protein-coupled receptors are part of a large class of receptors involved in intercellular signaling. Structurally, G protein-coupled receptors have an extracellular N terminus, seven transmembrane helices, three intracellular loops, three extracellular loops, and an intracellular C terminus. The ligand-binding domain is within the transmembrane helices.
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Which of the following cell types does not contain G protein-coupled receptors?
Which of the following cell types does not contain G protein-coupled receptors?
G protein-coupled receptors are only found in eukaryotes including yeast cells and animal cells. Bacteria cells are prokaryotes, and therefore do not contain G protein-coupled receptors. Even though yeast cells are single-celled, they possess all the characteristics of eukaryotic cells.
G protein-coupled receptors are only found in eukaryotes including yeast cells and animal cells. Bacteria cells are prokaryotes, and therefore do not contain G protein-coupled receptors. Even though yeast cells are single-celled, they possess all the characteristics of eukaryotic cells.
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G proteins function as signal transmitters in coordination with G protein-coupled receptors. They are active when bound to which of the following chemical energy carriers?
G proteins function as signal transmitters in coordination with G protein-coupled receptors. They are active when bound to which of the following chemical energy carriers?
G proteins are a class of protein signaling molecules that are activated by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). When a ligand binds to the transmembrane domain of GPCRs, the GPCR undergoes a conformational change. This conformational change activates the G protein, which binds to GTP rather than lower energy GDP. The active G protein can then dissociate and transmit the signal by interacting with other proteins.
G proteins are a class of protein signaling molecules that are activated by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). When a ligand binds to the transmembrane domain of GPCRs, the GPCR undergoes a conformational change. This conformational change activates the G protein, which binds to GTP rather than lower energy GDP. The active G protein can then dissociate and transmit the signal by interacting with other proteins.
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Which of the following describes what happens to tyrosine kinase receptors upon ligand binding?
Which of the following describes what happens to tyrosine kinase receptors upon ligand binding?
Tyrosine kinase receptors exist as single monomers but possess the capability to polymerize. Tyrosine kinase receptors have a transmembrane domain, an extracellular N terminus, and an intracellular C terminus. When a ligand binds to the extracellular N terminus, the tyrosine kinase receptor dimerizes. There are multiple models of receptor dimerization. One of the models is that dimerization is aided by the ligand itself, which binds to the N termini of both tyrosine kinase receptors. Another is that dimerization occurs after each tyrosine kinase receptor monomer binds to a ligand. A final model postulates that the binding of a ligand induces a conformation change that allows dimerization.
Tyrosine kinase receptors exist as single monomers but possess the capability to polymerize. Tyrosine kinase receptors have a transmembrane domain, an extracellular N terminus, and an intracellular C terminus. When a ligand binds to the extracellular N terminus, the tyrosine kinase receptor dimerizes. There are multiple models of receptor dimerization. One of the models is that dimerization is aided by the ligand itself, which binds to the N termini of both tyrosine kinase receptors. Another is that dimerization occurs after each tyrosine kinase receptor monomer binds to a ligand. A final model postulates that the binding of a ligand induces a conformation change that allows dimerization.
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Which of the following regions of tyrosine kinase receptors are autophosphorylated upon ligand binding?
Which of the following regions of tyrosine kinase receptors are autophosphorylated upon ligand binding?
Tyrosine kinase receptors are composed of a transmembrane domain, an extracellular N terminus, and an intracellular C terminus. Ligand binding to the extracellular N terminus stimulates receptor dimerization. The dimerization stimulates kinase activity on the intracellular C terminus, leading to the autophosphorylation of the tyrosine residues on the C terminus. This phosphorylation of tyrosine residues creates binding sites for relay proteins, which are then phosphorylation by the tyrosine kinase receptors. The phosphorylated relay proteins then transmit the signal to other cellular pathways.
Tyrosine kinase receptors are composed of a transmembrane domain, an extracellular N terminus, and an intracellular C terminus. Ligand binding to the extracellular N terminus stimulates receptor dimerization. The dimerization stimulates kinase activity on the intracellular C terminus, leading to the autophosphorylation of the tyrosine residues on the C terminus. This phosphorylation of tyrosine residues creates binding sites for relay proteins, which are then phosphorylation by the tyrosine kinase receptors. The phosphorylated relay proteins then transmit the signal to other cellular pathways.
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Which of the following choices best describes the event in tyrosine kinase receptor activation that transmits a signal that regulates cellular gene transcription?
Which of the following choices best describes the event in tyrosine kinase receptor activation that transmits a signal that regulates cellular gene transcription?
Tyrosine kinase receptors are fully activated when they bind to an extracellular ligand, dimerize, and then autophosphorylate at tyrosine residues on the C terminus. The signal is not transduced until relay proteins are phosphorylated by the tyrosine kinases. These relay proteins can then stimulate a phosphorylation cascade that initiates signaling pathways, which regulate nuclear gene transcription
Tyrosine kinase receptors are fully activated when they bind to an extracellular ligand, dimerize, and then autophosphorylate at tyrosine residues on the C terminus. The signal is not transduced until relay proteins are phosphorylated by the tyrosine kinases. These relay proteins can then stimulate a phosphorylation cascade that initiates signaling pathways, which regulate nuclear gene transcription
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Which of the following choices best describes the factor that opens ion channels by inducing receptors to initiate "conformational change"?
Which of the following choices best describes the factor that opens ion channels by inducing receptors to initiate "conformational change"?
When inactive, ion gated receptors are closed. When a ligand binds, the channel undergoes a conformational change and opens: creating a tunnel. This conformational change does not last for a long period of time; the ligand soon dissociates and the ion channel closes.
When inactive, ion gated receptors are closed. When a ligand binds, the channel undergoes a conformational change and opens: creating a tunnel. This conformational change does not last for a long period of time; the ligand soon dissociates and the ion channel closes.
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Which of the following messengers mediate long-distance cell signaling in animal cells?
Which of the following messengers mediate long-distance cell signaling in animal cells?
In animal cells, hormones mediate long distance cell signaling. Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by cells that travel through the circulatory system to the target cell receptors. Hormones communicate between diverse cell types and initiate diverse transduction pathways. Hormones are used for long distance cell signaling in both plant and animal cells.
In animal cells, hormones mediate long distance cell signaling. Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by cells that travel through the circulatory system to the target cell receptors. Hormones communicate between diverse cell types and initiate diverse transduction pathways. Hormones are used for long distance cell signaling in both plant and animal cells.
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Which of the following choices is not an example of an animal hormone?
Which of the following choices is not an example of an animal hormone?
Hormones are chemical messengers responsible for long distance cell signaling. Hormones are involved in diverse signaling pathways and have a variety of effects on cellular activities; therefore, there are many types of hormones. Animal hormones can be organized into classes based on their chemical makeup—peptide hormones, steroid hormones, lipid-based hormones, and amino acid-derived hormones. Insulin and growth hormones are both in the class of peptide hormones, and they are responsible for promoting the absorption of glucose from the bloodstream and promoting cell growth and reproduction, respectively. Testosterone is a steroid hormone that controls the development of male reproductive features.
Hormones are chemical messengers responsible for long distance cell signaling. Hormones are involved in diverse signaling pathways and have a variety of effects on cellular activities; therefore, there are many types of hormones. Animal hormones can be organized into classes based on their chemical makeup—peptide hormones, steroid hormones, lipid-based hormones, and amino acid-derived hormones. Insulin and growth hormones are both in the class of peptide hormones, and they are responsible for promoting the absorption of glucose from the bloodstream and promoting cell growth and reproduction, respectively. Testosterone is a steroid hormone that controls the development of male reproductive features.
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Which of the following choices is the best example of a plant hormone?
Which of the following choices is the best example of a plant hormone?
Plant hormones, like animal hormones, are involved in long distance cell signaling. Most plant hormones are involved in regulating plant growth and are secreted by plant cells. Because plants lack a circulatory system, plant hormones move through cells via passive transport. This demands that the chemical composition of plant hormones must be simple. Auxin is a plant hormone whose distribution controls plant growth in response to environmental conditions. Other common plant hormones include abscisic acid, cytokinin, ethylene, and gibberellin.
Plant hormones, like animal hormones, are involved in long distance cell signaling. Most plant hormones are involved in regulating plant growth and are secreted by plant cells. Because plants lack a circulatory system, plant hormones move through cells via passive transport. This demands that the chemical composition of plant hormones must be simple. Auxin is a plant hormone whose distribution controls plant growth in response to environmental conditions. Other common plant hormones include abscisic acid, cytokinin, ethylene, and gibberellin.
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Which of the following statements about receptors are true?
Which of the following statements about receptors are true?
Receptors are proteins embedded in the plasma membrane that receive and transmit signals from extracellular and intracellular sources. Receptors can also be embedded in the plasma membrane of the nucleus. Receptors bind to ligands, which can elicit a variety of responses including: activation, partial activation, and inhibition.
Receptors are proteins embedded in the plasma membrane that receive and transmit signals from extracellular and intracellular sources. Receptors can also be embedded in the plasma membrane of the nucleus. Receptors bind to ligands, which can elicit a variety of responses including: activation, partial activation, and inhibition.
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In second messenger signaling systems (i.e.as the cAMP system), where do second messenger molecules function in the cell?
In second messenger signaling systems (i.e.as the cAMP system), where do second messenger molecules function in the cell?
Second messenger systems begin with an extracellular ligand that binds to a receptor on the cell surface. The receptor then activates intracellular primary effectors (proteins that transduce the signal from the plasma membrane to the cytosol). In the cytosol, effectors activate second messenger molecules, which regulate intracellular process including transcription, neurotransmitter release, and enzyme activation. Second messengers have several common characteristics: they are localized, are easily synthesized and degraded, and are intracellular. These systems are responsible for diverse cellular processes and are able to amplify signals through kinase cascades. Common second messenger systems are the cAMP system and the tyrosine kinase system.
Second messenger systems begin with an extracellular ligand that binds to a receptor on the cell surface. The receptor then activates intracellular primary effectors (proteins that transduce the signal from the plasma membrane to the cytosol). In the cytosol, effectors activate second messenger molecules, which regulate intracellular process including transcription, neurotransmitter release, and enzyme activation. Second messengers have several common characteristics: they are localized, are easily synthesized and degraded, and are intracellular. These systems are responsible for diverse cellular processes and are able to amplify signals through kinase cascades. Common second messenger systems are the cAMP system and the tyrosine kinase system.
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In the cAMP second messenger system, what enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of the second messenger cAMP?
In the cAMP second messenger system, what enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of the second messenger cAMP?
The cAMP second messenger system is involved in many signaling pathways, such as the regulation of glycogen, growth hormone, and lipid metabolism. In the cAMP system, ligand binding activates a G protein-coupled receptor and the associated intracellular G protein. The activated G protein then stimulates the enzyme adenylate cyclase to produce cAMP second messenger molecules from ATP. The cAMP molecules activate protein kinases that, in turn, activate a variety of target proteins through phosphorylation. Cyclic AMP or cAMP systems are capable of transducing a variety of signals.
The cAMP second messenger system is involved in many signaling pathways, such as the regulation of glycogen, growth hormone, and lipid metabolism. In the cAMP system, ligand binding activates a G protein-coupled receptor and the associated intracellular G protein. The activated G protein then stimulates the enzyme adenylate cyclase to produce cAMP second messenger molecules from ATP. The cAMP molecules activate protein kinases that, in turn, activate a variety of target proteins through phosphorylation. Cyclic AMP or cAMP systems are capable of transducing a variety of signals.
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Which of the following is an example of intraspecies cell signaling?
Which of the following is an example of intraspecies cell signaling?
Intraspecies cell signaling is the communication between members of the same species on a cellular level. This occurs in both unicellular and multicellular organisms. Pheromones and quorum sensing are both common mechanisms used for intraspecies signaling. Pheromones are chemicals secreted by organisms. These signals trigger a number of social responses such as alerting others of danger, stimulating sexual attraction, and indicating territories. Pheromones are used by a variety of organisms. Quorum sensing is molecular signaling used to regulate population density in certain insect and bacteria species.
Intraspecies cell signaling is the communication between members of the same species on a cellular level. This occurs in both unicellular and multicellular organisms. Pheromones and quorum sensing are both common mechanisms used for intraspecies signaling. Pheromones are chemicals secreted by organisms. These signals trigger a number of social responses such as alerting others of danger, stimulating sexual attraction, and indicating territories. Pheromones are used by a variety of organisms. Quorum sensing is molecular signaling used to regulate population density in certain insect and bacteria species.
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In a MAP kinase phosphorylation signaling cascade, where does the transduction pathway terminate?
In a MAP kinase phosphorylation signaling cascade, where does the transduction pathway terminate?
The MAP kinase signaling system is a common method of cellular signaling that regulates transcription of genes within a cell. The pathway begins when a ligand binds to a membrane receptor. The activated receptor activates an associated Ras protein, which is a GTPase that is activated when bound to GTP. The active Ras protein then donates a phosphate group to a MAP kinase protein and activates it. This begins a MAP kinase phosphorylation cascade. MAP kinases phosphorylate other MAP kinases in a serial fashion, which allows for signal amplification. After a series of MAP kinase phosphorylation events, specific MAP kinases phosphorylate transcription factors, regulating their activity and gene expression. Thus, the pathway ends with transcription factor regulation.
The MAP kinase signaling system is a common method of cellular signaling that regulates transcription of genes within a cell. The pathway begins when a ligand binds to a membrane receptor. The activated receptor activates an associated Ras protein, which is a GTPase that is activated when bound to GTP. The active Ras protein then donates a phosphate group to a MAP kinase protein and activates it. This begins a MAP kinase phosphorylation cascade. MAP kinases phosphorylate other MAP kinases in a serial fashion, which allows for signal amplification. After a series of MAP kinase phosphorylation events, specific MAP kinases phosphorylate transcription factors, regulating their activity and gene expression. Thus, the pathway ends with transcription factor regulation.
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Which of the following choices describes the effects of the output on signaling pathways in negative feedback systems?
Which of the following choices describes the effects of the output on signaling pathways in negative feedback systems?
Negative feedback is one method that organisms use to maintain homeostasis. In these systems, the rate of the process decreases as the amount of output increases. In other words, the output downregulates the process that created it. An example of this is the regulation of blood glucose. When blood glucose levels rise, the pancreas secretes more insulin to convert glucose to glycogen for storage. This lowers the blood glucose level. If the level falls too much, then the pancreas secretes more glucagon to convert glycogen to glucose, which raises blood glucose levels.
Negative feedback is one method that organisms use to maintain homeostasis. In these systems, the rate of the process decreases as the amount of output increases. In other words, the output downregulates the process that created it. An example of this is the regulation of blood glucose. When blood glucose levels rise, the pancreas secretes more insulin to convert glucose to glycogen for storage. This lowers the blood glucose level. If the level falls too much, then the pancreas secretes more glucagon to convert glycogen to glucose, which raises blood glucose levels.
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Which of the following is not an example of a positive feedback system?
Which of the following is not an example of a positive feedback system?
In a positive feedback system, outputs stimulate the system to create more of the same products. Uterine contractions, blood clotting, and lactation are all physiological examples of positive feedback systems. Oxytocin is a hormone that causes uterine contractions and also stimulates the hypothalamus to produce more oxytocin. In blood clotting, the activated platelets near a wound release signals to attract more platelets. During lactation, the nerve stimulation of suckling stimulates the hypothalamus to secrete prolactin, leading to increased milk production. On the other hand, blood glucose regulation is an example of a negative feedback system.
In a positive feedback system, outputs stimulate the system to create more of the same products. Uterine contractions, blood clotting, and lactation are all physiological examples of positive feedback systems. Oxytocin is a hormone that causes uterine contractions and also stimulates the hypothalamus to produce more oxytocin. In blood clotting, the activated platelets near a wound release signals to attract more platelets. During lactation, the nerve stimulation of suckling stimulates the hypothalamus to secrete prolactin, leading to increased milk production. On the other hand, blood glucose regulation is an example of a negative feedback system.
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